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Allosteric binding sites on cell-surface receptors: novel targets for drug discovery

Nature Reviews Drug Discovery volume 1, pages 198–210 (2002)Cite this article

Key Points

  • Allosteric ligands interact with binding sites on the receptor molecule that are topographically distinct from the binding site for the endogenous agonist (the orthosteric site).

  • Allosteric modulators have at least three general advantages over standard orthosteric drugs:

  • First, there is a 'ceiling' to their effect; once the allosteric sites are completely occupied, no further allosteric effect is observed.

  • Second, they have the ability to selectively modify responses only in tissues in which the endogenous agonist is active.

  • Third, they offer the potential for greater subtype selectivity, owing to greater variation in allosteric sites relative to orthosteric sites, and/or different degrees of allosteric modulation at each receptor subtype.

  • Traditional radioligand binding assays, which use a radiolabelled 'probe' ligand to directly monitor occupancy of the orthosteric site on the receptor, are biased towards the detection of orthosteric effects. This could explain the current paucity of clinically available allosteric drugs.

  • As radioligand binding assays are inherently probe dependent, discovery programmes that are specifically aimed at identifying allosteric modulators using such assays should, if possible, use the endogenous orthosteric ligand as a probe. Radioligand concentrations might need to be optimized to maximize the chance of detecting allosteric effects, and additional validation assays to monitor radioligand dissociation rates are also useful.

  • Functional assays directly determine the desired physiological end point, and so are highly suitable for the detection of allosteric modulators. Potential disadvantages, such as a higher hit rate owing to activation of non-target receptors, could be offset by using radioligand binding as a secondary screen.

Abstract

Cell-surface receptors are the targets for more than 60% of current drugs. Traditionally, optimizing the interaction of lead molecules with the binding site for the endogenous agonist (orthosteric site) has been viewed as the best means of achieving selectivity of action. However, recent developments have highlighted the fact that drugs can interact with binding sites on the receptor molecule that are distinct from the orthosteric site, known as allosteric sites. Allosteric modulators could offer several advantages over orthosteric ligands, including greater selectivity and saturability of their effect.

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Figure 1: Models of orthosteric and allosteric binding.
Figure 2: Allosteric sites as receptor-selective drug targets.
Figure 3: Detection of allosteric effects on orthosteric ligand binding.
Figure 4: Detection of allosteric effects on orthosteric ligand function.
Figure 5: An example of the semi-quantitative 'affinity-ratio' assay for the detection of allosteric modulator effects.

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Acknowledgements

A.C. is grateful to F. Mitchelson and M. J. Lew for critical review of the manuscript. Work in A.C.'s laboratory is funded by grants from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia and by Amrad Australia. A.C. is a C. R. Roper Research Fellow of the Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, University of Melbourne, Australia.

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  1. Department of Pharmacology, University of Melbourne, Grattan Street, Parkville, 3010, Victoria, Australia

    Arthur Christopoulos

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DATABASES

LocusLink

adenosine A1 receptor

adenosine A2A receptor

adenosine A3 receptor

α1-adrenoceptor

α2A-adrenoceptor

α2B-adrenoceptor

β2-adrenoceptor

calcium-sensing receptor

CCR1

CCR3

CCR5

CXCR3

CXCR4

dopamine D1 receptor

dopamine D2 receptor

endothelin receptor

eosinophil major basic protein

GABAA receptor

GABAA-receptor α-subunits

GABAA-receptor β-subunits

GABAA-receptor δ-subunit

GABAA-receptor ɛ-subunit

GABAA-receptor γ-subunit

GABAA-receptor γ2-subunit

GABAA-receptor θ-subunit

GABAA-receptor ρ-subunit

GABAB receptor

glycine receptor

5-HT1B receptor

5-HT1D receptor

5-HT2A receptor

5-HT7 receptor

M2 receptor

M3 receptor

M4 receptor

mGlu1

mGlu5

nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

NK1 receptor

NMDA receptors

P2X receptor

P2Y1 receptor

GABAA receptors

muscarinic acetylcholine receptors

 OMIM

hyperparathyroidism

FURTHER INFORMATION

G-protein coupled receptors

Glycine receptors

Glossary

ORTHOSTERIC SITE

The endogenous agonist binding site on a receptor. This domain is also recognized by classic competitive antagonists and inverse agonists.

ALLOSTERIC SITE

A modulatory binding site on a receptor that is topographically distinct from the agonist binding site.

ALLOSTERIC INTERACTION

An interaction between two topographically distinct binding sites on the same receptor complex.

ALLOSTERIC TRANSITION

The isomerization of a receptor protein between multiple conformational states.

COOPERATIVE BINDING

The binding of two or more molecules of the same ligand to a receptor complex. Sometimes used in a less strict sense to describe the concomitant binding of more than one molecule of any chemical type to a receptor complex.

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Christopoulos, A. Allosteric binding sites on cell-surface receptors: novel targets for drug discovery. Nat Rev Drug Discov 1, 198–210 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd746

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