Reviews and perspectivesWhat is a memory schema? A historical perspective on current neuroscience literature
Introduction
It has long been observed that prior knowledge, and schema representations in particular, influence memory formation and retrieval (Anderson, 1984, Bartlett, 1932, Carmichael et al., 1932, Craik and Lockhart, 1972, Posner and Keele, 1968). Cognitive neuroscientists have investigated the influences of semantics and knowledge congruency on memory for almost two decades (e.g. Demb et al., 1995, Kapur et al., 1994, Wagner et al., 1998). However, only recently has there been investigation into the neural mechanisms of more complex knowledge structures such as schemas. Specifically, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), and its interaction with the hippocampus and posterior neocortex, have been implicated in the facilitation of encoding of new information by prior schemas (Tse et al., 2011, Van Kesteren et al., 2010a, Van Kesteren et al., 2010b, Wang et al., 2012).
This renewed interest in the psychological term “schema” has been characterized by heterogeneous usage of the term by cognitive neuroscientists. As applied in the field, schema appears to encompass an assortment of cognitive structures that facilitate encoding, which greatly vary in complexity, organization, and mechanisms. These include the first half of a coherent unique story (Van Kesteren et al., 2010a), multisensory representation of objects (Van Kesteren et al., 2010b), associative rules (Kumaran, Summerfield, Hassabis, & Maguire, 2009), implicit probabilistic statistical regularities (Durrant, Taylor, Cairney, & Lewis, 2011), and in the rat literature: odour-location associative maps (Tse et al., 2007, Tse et al., 2011, Wang et al., 2012). This diversity follows a historical precedent of applying the term loosely to manifold cognitive structures exerting influence over memory encoding and retrieval. Even Bartlett (1932) expressed significant reservations about the use of the term, proclaiming it poorly captured key characteristics of memory schemas as he viewed it, most notably their dynamic nature.
Investigation of the mechanisms by which prior knowledge influences memory formation is hindered by equating diverse cognitive constructs all under the same term. Specifically, the lack of clear definitions obscures the identification of the critical features that make schemas conducive to memory encoding and retrieval. This review will focus on these critical structural features of schemas and will not focus on the function of schemas, which has been addressed by others and does not appear to be subject to dispute (Anderson and Pichert, 1978, Anderson, 1984, Arkes and Freedman, 1984, Bartlett, 1932, Bransford and Johnson, 1972, Carmichael et al., 1932, Cooper et al., 1995, Head and Holmes, 1911, Kumaran et al., 2009, Piaget, 1926, Preston and Eichenbaum, 2013, Rumelhart, 1980, Shea et al., 2008, Tse et al., 2007, Van Kesteren et al., 2013).
As a first step in an attempt to resolve the ambiguity of “schema” and facilitate cross-study communication about prior knowledge influence on memory encoding and retrieval, we review the psychological and educational literature on schemas. Based on this review we propose that schemas possess four necessary features: (1) an associative network structure, (2) basis on multiple episodes, (3) lack of unit detail, and (4) adaptability; and that they also have sensitivity to four additional features: (5) chronological relationships, (6) hierarchical organization, (7) cross-connectivity, and (8) embedded response options. We then map several of the different definitions of schema in recent neuroscience literature onto these features to illustrate their similarities and differences. This comparison, in conjunction with a discussion comparing task demands presumed to rely on schemas, illuminates how studies based on such disparate interpretations of schemas converge in finding an implication of the vmPFC in schema functions.
Section snippets
Emergence of the “schema”: Historical milestones
Recent studies on schemas appear to have emerged from diverse interpretations of what is actually meant by the term “schema”. This inconsistency was inevitable considering the many re-characterizations the term has undergone in its history. Researchers have long been aware of the problematic ambiguity inherent in its definition, but attempts at re-branding specific interpretations of “schema” with new terms have rarely persisted. While there is much debate over the structure of a schema and
Associative network structure
While the term “schema” has adopted several distinct meanings in both past and present research, there appears to be consensus regarding some of the core features of the construct. For instance, most definitions of the term agree that schemas are composed of units and their interrelationships. A schema can thus be said to have an associative network structure.
Schema units have been referred to as elements (Anderson, 1984, Halford and Busby, 2007, Qiu et al., 2008), events (Schank & Abelson, 1977
Related cognitive structures
The discussion on schemas thus far has touched on a few related knowledge structures, such as action schemas, plans, and scripts; however, other organized, meta-cognitive structures relevant to memory should be noted as well. Table 1 compares existing definitions of schemas and a variety of other knowledge structures across the features identified above. A brief discussion on these structures follows.
Schemas and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex
Although schema definitions in the neuroscience literature vary considerably, studies consistently demonstrate the importance of the vmPFC in schema functions (Kumaran et al., 2009, Qiu et al., 2008, Tse et al., 2011, Van Kesteren et al., 2010b). These studies are presented in Table 2 and will also be discussed in terms of our proposal. First, we turn to two reviews that provide frameworks to account for the interplay between the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex in memory. While our
Concluding remarks
Recent studies on neural underpinnings of schemas emerged from diverse interpretations of what is meant by the term “schema”. This dilemma was inevitable considering the many re-characterizations the term has undergone in its history. A schema is a memory structure capable of representing extremely complex constructs employing this information to influence encoding and retrieval of episodic memory, and guide elaborate, context-specific patterns of behaviour. We propose based on the history of
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