Bayesian modeling of dynamic motion integration
Introduction
Efficient object motion processing is achieved in humans and non-human primates by integrating multiple noisy local motion signals. It is appropriate to distinguish two types of local motion signals, ambiguous and non-ambiguous ones. Motion signals from elongated uni-dimensional (1D) contours are ambiguous when analyzed through a spatially limited aperture (see Fig. 1), similar to the receptive field of many neurons in the motion-sensitive middle-temporal (MT) cortical area (Albright, 1984). The ambiguity relies on the fact that the motion of the contour in the tangential direction is unknown, so that the observed movement is consistent with a family of possible motion directions and velocities (Fig. 1). In contrast, motion signals from local 2D features (e.g. terminators) are non-ambiguous, and psychophysical (Lorenceau and Shiffrar, 1992) and physiological (Pack and Born, 2001) studies have demonstrated that these signals can be used to reliably solve the aperture problem. However, the integration of 1D and 2D information is time-demanding and very short presentations of moving objects may give rise to characteristic perceptual errors (Lorenceau et al., 1993) that are biased in the direction orthogonal to the contour. For example, Lorenceau and Shiffrar (1992) found that tilted lines (+20° anti-clockwise with respect to the vertical) moving to the right and down are perceived as moving upward if presented very briefly at a low contrast. For longer presentations, the perceptual bias tends to be reduced and eventually eliminated. In parallel, electrophysiological recordings have shown that direction selectivity for motion-sensitive neurons in MT changes across time, over a typical time interval of ∼60 ms (Pack and Born, 2001). MT neurons respond mostly to the direction orthogonal to object’s motion, whereas later they encode the actual object’s motion.
Recent studies on smooth pursuit eye movements (SPEM) do also provide an account of early motion processing which parallels the former findings in psychophysical experiments (see also Section 2). When human subjects or monkeys are required to visually track a moving object carrying different 1D and 2D information, eye-velocity traces are transiently biased, at pursuit initiation, toward the 1D-cued direction, i.e. orthogonally to the object’s contour (Masson and Stone, 2002, Wallace et al., 2005, Born et al., 2006). Later, the edge–orthogonal 1D-bias (or tracking error) is progressively eliminated and eye-velocity converges to the object’s global motion. Typically, the resolution of motion signal ambiguity is achieved within the first 300–400 ms after the presentation of the moving stimulus.
Beside the intrinsic ambiguity resulting from the local edge direction of motion, visual motion is also affected by the noise embedded in the sensory input per se. These two sources of uncertainty can be well integrated within a Bayesian framework (Weiss et al., 2002, Weiss and Fleet, 2002, Stocker and Simoncelli, 2006, Perrinet et al., 2005) where the perceived motion is the solution of a statistical inference problem. In these models, the information from local 1D and 2D motions can be represented by their likelihood functions and these functions can be derived for simple objects with the help of a few reasonable assumptions (Weiss and Fleet, 2002). Bayesian models also allow the inclusion of prior constraints and the most common assumption used in motion models is a preference for slow speeds. The effects of priors are especially salient when signal uncertainty is high. One way to increase the uncertainty of a visual stimulus is to reduce its contrast, and in these cases, perceived velocity is indeed underestimated (Thompson, 1982), thereby providing some experimental support for the slowness prior. Interestingly, Priebe and Lisberger, 2004 have demonstrated that increasing the spatial frequency of the moving stimuli leads to qualitatively similar results than a decrease of contrast (or, more generally, an increase of visual noise), namely to the underestimation of perceived motion speed.
Up to now, Bayesian motion models have been applied to qualitatively predict, for instance, the initial bias toward 1D motion signals observed experimentally and its dependence on sensory noise (Weiss et al., 2002). We propose here to develop this theoretical framework in order to model smooth pursuit eye movements when tracking moving objects that carry multiple local cues. In particular we will focus on the dynamical evolution of the tracking error which reflects, in our opinion, the main characteristics of the underlying dynamical motion integration process. Our dynamic model is composed of a Bayesian kernel and an updating rule. The Bayesian kernel is fairly traditional, combining prior knowledge on speed with the current estimate to produce a robust inference of velocity. The updating rule revises the prior with time, thereby reflecting all past evidence about particular velocities. We propose that prior knowledge represents initially a default assumption independently of any stimulus that is then recursively updated by using the previous posterior probability as the current prior. The recursive injection of posterior distribution boosts the spread of information about the object’s global shape, favoring the disambiguation of 1D by 2D cues. We also propose to both constrain and validate this model by means of experimental recordings of smooth pursuit eye movements.
Section snippets
Dynamic motion integration: an oculomotor account
Humans and monkeys are perfectly able to visually track the center of a moving extended object. The general purpose of these smooth voluntary eye movements is the stabilization of the image of the moving object on the fovea. Tracking accuracy during the steady-state movement is very high regardless of the orientation of the object’s edges with respect to motion direction.
However, before the steady-state movement is achieved, significant biases can be observed. When the orientation of a moving
Smooth pursuit recording and analysis
In the first set of oculomotor experiments, we recorded smooth pursuit eye movements from three human subjects (two authors of the paper and one naïve subject) while they were tracking one of two objects. The first object was a circular Gaussian spot and the second a line whose length could be approximated as infinite, in the sense that terminators were very far in the periphery and therefore their influence was presumably very limited. These stimuli moved with various motion directions and
Results
Fig. 6 presents, for each subject and target motion direction, the estimated variance of the prior and the two independent likelihood distributions as a function of the target speed. It is important to underline that these are estimates of hidden variables which are supposed to characterise the internal inferential processes underlying motion integration. Because these variables are fully constrained by experimental data, they may provide a first general validation of the model. Fig. 6 deserves
Conclusions
Uncertainty in motion processing is reflected in the variability of the initial velocity of smooth pursuit eye movements. This type of eye movements provides also a reliable dynamic measure of the different contributions of 1D and 2D motion cues to motion integration. We have presented a simple model of motion integration dynamics, which is based on the idea of recursively updating the observer’s prior about object motion by means of recent experience. The model is quantitatively constrained by
Acknowledgements
We are deeply thankful to the patient volunteers who participated in the oculomotor experiments and in particular the naïve subject AR. Anna Montagnini was supported by a Marie Curie European Individual Fellowship.
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