The hazards of time

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Temporal expectations are continuously formed and updated, and interact with expectations about other relevant attributes of events, in order to optimise our interaction with unfolding sensory stimulation. In this paper, we will highlight some evidence revealing the pervasive effects of temporal expectations in modulating perception and action, and reflect on the current state of understanding about their underlying neural systems and mechanisms.

Section snippets

Automatic temporal expectations

Temporal prediction of events is often discussed in terms of ‘hazard functions’  the conditional probability of an event occurring at a given time given that it has not yet occurred [2]. Several types of motor behaviour exemplify ongoing predictive temporal tuning. Learning in classical conditioning depends upon temporal regularities between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, and the resultant learned responses become finely tailored to the timing of the unconditioned stimulus [3]. In

Temporal expectations around the brain

The neural mechanisms by which temporal expectations affect perception and action remain largely unknown. Much of the relevant research is scattered in the literature and is fragmented by a lack of cross-referencing. When brought together, the papers attest to widespread effects of temporal prediction upon neural processing and begin to uncover some of the putative cellular mechanisms.

The ‘clock(s)’ behind the expectations

These initial glimpses of the widespread dynamic temporal adjustments of behaviour and neural activity naturally invite us to ponder on the nature of timekeeping mechanisms driving these temporal expectations. If temporal expectations are to optimise behaviour successfully, the passage of time must first be accurately estimated. The mechanisms underlying the timing of intervals that are relevant for the dynamic control of behaviour (‘interval timing’) are currently a matter of heated debate [70

Future directions

The neural basis of timing is currently enjoying a research boom. As the field develops, we must agree on a clear, shared taxonomy and improve cross-referencing between related works carried out with different methods or theoretical perspectives. Findings from both psychology and neuroscience are consonant and adamant about the strong and pervasive influence of the fourth dimension in shaping our behaviour. The next phase requires a concerted and open-minded wave of investigation into the

References and recommended reading

Papers of particular interest, published within the annual period of the review, have been highlighted as:

  • • of special interest

  • •• of outstanding interest

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