Descending control of pain
Section snippets
General introduction: scope and aims of review
Some 30-odd years ago, the concept was evoked that nociceptive information impinging upon the dorsal horn (DH) of the spinal cord from the skin, viscera and other tissues, is not automatically transferred to higher centres (Melzack and Wall, 1965). Rather, in accordance with now familiar “gate” terminology, processes integrated at the terminals of nocisponsive (pain-sensitive) primary afferent fibres (PAFs), and at the projection neurones (PNs) which they target, profoundly modify nociceptive
Neuronal circuitry in the DH
For an understanding of the operation of descending pathways, it is essential to briefly consider their relationship to PAFs and other neuronal elements in the DH (Fig. 1). There is a vast literature devoted to synaptic processing of nociceptive input in the DH and the reader is referred to several more thorough and technical accounts for additional information Besson and Chaouch, 1987, Willis, 1988, Willis and Coggeshall, 1991, Levine et al., 1993, Todd and Spike, 1993, Coggeshall and Carlton,
Common sites of origin for mechanisms of descending inhibition and facilitation
There is no absolute anatomical separation between structures involved in the initiation of mechanisms of DI as compared to DF (Table 1). Common loci in both the rostroventromedial medulla (RVM) and NTS, for example, give rise to descending pathways engendering DI or DF, albeit via contrasting mechanisms. Fields et al., 1991, Watkins et al., 1994, Wiertelak et al., 1997, Fields and Basbaum, 1999, McNally, 1999, Urban et al., 1999a, Urban et al., 1999b, Urban et al., 1999c, Nuseir and Proudfit,
Interplay of descending inhibition and facilitation in the signalling of nociceptive information
In general, for pain reflecting excessive stimulation of specialised nociceptors, there is an adaptive relationship between the signalling of noxious stimuli and actual or impending tissue damage, corresponding to the crucial warning function of pain. However, the “input–output” equation for nociceptive transmission is far from invariant and may be weighted either in favour of, or against, its passage by an abundance of mechanisms including DI and DF Besson and Chaouch, 1987, Willis and
Multiple classes of adrenoceptor
Three major classes of AR can be recognised: α1-, α2- and β-ARs Ruffolo et al., 1993, Bylund et al., 1994, Hieble et al., 1995, Kukkonen et al., 2001, Piascik and Perez, 2001. Three subtypes of the former have been cloned: α1A, α1B and α1D, which are collectively characterised by their positive coupling via Gq/11 to voltage-gated Ca2+-channels and phospholipase C (PLC), activation of which mobilises intracellular pools of calcium. (The pharmacologically-defined α1C-AR has been abandoned)
Multiple classes of dopamine receptor
Dopamine (DA) receptors are classified into two families: D2-like, incorporating D2 and closely-related D3 and D4 receptors, and D1-like which includes D1 and closely-related D5 receptors Missale et al., 1998, Vallone et al., 2000. Stimulation of D2, D3 and D4 receptors leads, via Gi/o, to the inhibition of AC. Activation of D2 receptors also suppresses and potentiates Ca2+- and K+-currents, respectively, although such actions have proven difficult to detect for their D3 and D4 counterparts.
Origins and projection patterns to the DH
Although a small population of 5-HT-immunoreactive cell bodies has been identified ventral to the central canal in primates (LaMotte, 1988), virtually the entire serotonergic innervation of the spinal cord in these and other species is derived from supraspinal sources. In this regard, a modest proportion of serotonergic neurones from the dorsal raphe nucleus—which predominantly innervates the thalamus, dorsal hippocampus, striatum, cerebral cortex-sends collaterals to the spinal cord and the
Multiple receptors and origins of descending histaminergic pathways
Histamine exerts its actions via four classes of receptor. Of these, H1, H2 and H3 receptors are found in the CNS, and the latter functions both post-synaptically to histaminergic neurones and as an autoreceptor on their terminals Hough, 1988, Hough, 2001. Both H1 receptors (which couple positively to PLC and PhospolipaseA2) as well as H2 receptors (which couple positively to AC) are excitatory. H3 receptors (which are negatively coupled to AC and Ca2+-currents) are inhibitory, in line with
Multiple receptors and origins of cholinergic neurones in the dorsal horn
Cholinergic mechanisms for the modulation of nociception are particularly intriguing (Table 2) inasmuch as ACh may be involved: (1) in the activation of non-cholinergic descending pathways mediating DI; (2) in the mediation of DI following its own release from descending pathways and (3) in the induction of antinociception following release from ININs in the DH. Further, ACh modulates nociception by a complex pattern of effects mediated via multiple classes of muscarinic and nicotinic receptor
Substance P
A familiar feature of the DH is the massive provision of SP (and neurokinin (NK) A)-containing, fine calibre PAFs to superficial laminae of the DH which, via activation of NK1- and, possibly, NK2- and NK3-receptors play an important role in nociceptive transmission Cao et al., 1995, Seguin et al., 1995, Mantyh et al., 1995, DeFelipe et al., 1998, Millan, 1999, Yaksh, 1999a, Laird et al., 2000, Martinez-Caro and Laird, 2000, Ribeiro-da-silva and Hökfelt, 2000, Kamp et al., 2001, Todd et al., 2000
Generation of cannabinoids: actions at CB1 receptors
Of the two classes of cannabinoid receptor to date characterized, CB1 and CB2, only the former appears to be localized in the CNS (Pertwee, 1997). Although there is increasing evidence for promiscuous (pleiotropic) coupling of CB1 receptors via various classes of G-protein to intracellular transduction mechanisms Pertwee, 1997, Pertwee, 2001, Abadji et al., 1999, Ameri, 1999 they are well-established to negatively couple via Gi/o to AC and to enhance and suppress K+- and Ca2+-currents,
General considerations
In the therapeutic exploitation of descending controls for improved pain relief, the ultimate objective would be to develop an orally-active formulation of a drug with the following characteristics: (1) effective in all patients against inflammatory and/or neuropathic pain of disparate pathologies; (2) active over a well-defined dose-range; (3) selectively suppressing nociceptive as compared to non-nociceptive input; (4) with an appropriate duration of action; (5) devoid of problems of
General discussion
In concluding the present review, it is instructive to recall several major themes which are likely to inform future research into the physiological significance and therapeutic relevance of descending controls of nociceptive processing.
First, it is critical to establish patterns of neuronal connections both in the DH and in structures from which descending controls originate, in particular as regards the transmitters and multiple classes of receptor via which individual classes of neurone
Concluding comments
The proliferation of potential analgesic drug targets for the therapeutic manipulation of descending controls is testimony to the intensive and highly-successful research programme of the past decades. In parallel, great efforts have been invested in the characterization of peripheral and central mechanisms involved in the induction of nociception. Further, there is an increasing awareness of the importance of the cognitive–affective component of pain (appreciation, tolerance and coping).
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank M. Soubeyran, J.-M. Rivet, A. Gobert, A. Dekeyne, M. Brocco, S. Dapremont and D. Passerieux for invaluable assistance in the preparation of this article, together with J.-M. Besson, A. Dickenson and M. Hamon for helpful comments on the manuscript.
References (1644)
- et al.
Neuropeptide FF-containing efferent projections from the medial hypothalamus of rat: a phaseolus vulgaris leucoagglutinin study
Neuroscience
(1995) - et al.
5-HT2 receptor regulation of extracellular GABA levels in the prefrontal cortex
Neuropsychopharmacology
(1999) - et al.
Activation of the CB1 cannabinoid receptor protects cultured mouse spinal neurons against excitotoxicity
Neurosci. Lett.
(2001) - et al.
A cellular mechanism for the antinociceptive effect of a kappa opioid receptor agonist
Pain
(2001) - et al.
Brain melanocortin receptors: from cloning to functions
Peptides
(1997) - et al.
Melanocortins and the brain: from effects via receptors to drug targets
Eur. J. Pharmacol.
(2000) - et al.
Cloning and characterization of the guinea pig 5-HT1F receptor subtype: a comparison of the pharmacological profile to the human species homolog
Neuropharmacology
(1997) - et al.
Microinjection of arginine vasopressin into the central nucleus of amygdala suppressed nociceptive jaw opening reflex in freely moving rats
Brain Res. Bull.
(2001) - et al.
Antinociception and cardiovascular responses produced by electrical stimulation in the nucleus tractus solitarius, nucleus reticularis ventralis and the caudal medulla, nucleus reticularis ventralis, and the caudal medulla
Pain
(1990) - et al.
Effect of protein kinase C activation on the glycine evoked Cl current in spinal cord neurons
Brain Res.
(2001)