The cognitive-energetic model: an empirical approach to Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

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Abstract

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a childhood psychiatric disorder which when carefully defined, affects around 1% of the childhood population [Swanson JM, Sergeant JA, Taylor E, Sonuga-Barke EJS, Jensen PS, Canwell DP. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and hyperkinetic disorder. Lancet 1998;351:429–433]. The primary symptoms: distractibility, impulsivity and overactivity vary in degree and association in such children, which led DSM IV to propose three subgroups. Only one of these subgroups, the combined subtype: deficits in all three areas, meets the ICD-10 criteria. Since the other two subtypes are used extensively in North America (but not in Europe), widely different results between centres are to be expected and have been reported. Central to the ADHD syndrome is the idea of an attention deficit. In order to investigate attention, it is necessary to define what one means by this term and to operationalize it in such a manner that others can test and replicate findings. We have advocated the use of a cognitive-energetic model [Sanders, AF. Towards a model of stress and performance. Acta Psychologica 1983;53: 61–97]. The cognitive-energetic model of ADHD approaches the ADHD deficiency at three distinct levels. First, a lower set of cognitive processes: encoding, central processing and response organisation is postulated. Study of these processes has indicated that there are no deficits of processing at encoding or central processing but are present in motor organisation [Sergeant JA, van der Meere JJ. Convergence of approaches in localizing the hyperactivity deficit. In Lahey BB, Kazdin AE, editors. Advancements in clinical child psychology, vol. 13. New York: Plenum press, 1990. p. 207–45; Sergeant, JA, van der Meere JJ. Additive factor methodology applied to psychopathology with special reference to hyperactivity. Acta Psychologica 1990;74:277–295]. A second level of the cognitive-energetic model consists of the energetic pools: arousal, activation and effort. At this level, the primary deficits of ADHD are associated with the activation pool and (to some extent) effort. The third level of the model contains a management or executive function system. Barkley [Barkley RA, Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin 1997;121:65–94] reviewed the literature and concluded that executive function deficiencies were primarily due to a failure of inhibition. Oosterlaan, Logan and Sergeant [Oosterlaan J, Logan GD, Sergeant JA. Response inhibition in ADHD, CD, comorbid ADHD+CD, anxious and normal children: a meta-analysis of studies with the stop task. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 1998;39:411–426] demonstrated that this explanation was not specific to ADHD but also applied to children with the associated disorders of oppositional defiant and conduct disorder. Other executive functions seem to be intact, while others, are deficient. It is argued here that the cognitive-energetic model is a useful guide for determining not only ADHD deficiencies and associated disorders but also linking human cognitive neuroscience studies with neurobiological models of ADHD using animals [Sadile AG. Multiple evidence of a segmental defect in the anterior forebrain of an animal model of hyperactivity and attention deficits. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, in press; Sagvolden T, Sergeant JA. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: from brain dysyfunctions to behaviour. Behavioural Brain Research 1998;94:1–10]. A plea for an integrated attack on this research problem is made and the suggestion that conceptual refinement between levels of analysis is essential for further fundamental work to succeed is offered here.

Introduction

Children and adolescents with an excess of hyperactive, inattentive and impulsive behaviour are diagnosed currently to have Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Currently, the third facet of ADHD, impulsivity, has become the focus of research effort. It has been strongly advocated that disinhibition, is central to distinguishing this disorder from others [1], [2], [31], [32]. This approach suggests that ADHD is the result of a failure to delay responding associated with inhibitory deficits.

An alternative position has been advocated using a model of information processing which attempts to identify the locus of the ADHD deficit [43] Our approach utilises the cognitive-energetic model described in [36] and elaborated in ADHD in [42], [43], [44] and recently [45]. This model suggests that there may be certain aspects of inhibition, which is deficit in ADHD children, but that this is also dependent upon the energetic state of the child.

In order to clarify this position, some of the features of the model guiding our research are presented followed by a brief discussion of related research in ADHD.

Section snippets

The cognitive-energetic model

The overall efficiency of information processing in the cognitive-energetic model is said to be determined by both process (computational) and state factors (such as effort, arousal and activation). Computational mechanisms of attention include four general stages: encoding, search, decision and motor organisation [48]. These stages of information processing (see Fig. 1) are associated with experimental task variables [37].

The second level of the model encompasses three energetic pools. These

Energetics

It was noted that performance deficits in ADHD children could be linked to the three energetic pools and the superordinate management mechanism of the cognitive-energetic model. Two of these pools, activation and effort, are especially relevant to the inhibition hypothesis in ADHD. Activation is directly related to the motor organization (output) side of the cognitive-energetic model, which has been implicated in ADHD [20]. Effort in this model encompasses terms such as motivation and response

Discussion

It has been argued that it is an oversimplification to conclude that ADHD children uniquely suffer from an inhibition deficit that accounts for all of the experimental findings of impaired performance on a myriad of tasks [2]. Without doubt, however, the results of a wide variety of tests and tasks can be interpreted as showing disinhibition in ADHD. However, alternative explanations for many of the findings have not yet been ruled out. We have drawn attention to the role of state of energetic

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