Skip to main content
Log in

The classification and labeling of nonhomosexual gender dysphorias

  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This report suggests systematic strategies for the descriptive classification of nonhomosexual gender identity disorders, based on clinical observations and research findings. The classification of biological males is considered first. A review of cross-gender taxonomies shows that previous observers have identified and labeled a homosexual type far more consistently than any other category of male gender dysphoric. It is suggested that the apparent difficulty in differentiating reliably among the nonhomosexual types results from the sharing of many overlapping characteristics by the various groups. This is supported by a review of informal, mostly clinical, observations and by the findings of three studies designed to test the hypothesis that the nonhomosexual gender dysphorias, together with transvestism, constitute a family of related disorders in men. It is concluded that the main varieties of nonhomosexual gender dysphoria are more similar to each other than any of them is to the homosexual type. Two recommendations, based on the foregoing review, are offered for the classification of male gender dysphorics in research studies. When the number of subjects is small, they may be classified simply as homosexual or nonhomosexual. When the number is larger, the nonhomosexual cases may be classified as heterosexual, bisexual, or analloerotic (unattracted to male or female partners, but not necessarily devoid of sexual drive or activities).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1980).Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 3rd ed. APA, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1987).Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 3rd ed., rev., APA, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benjamin, H. (1966).The Transsexual Phenomenon Julian, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benjamin, H. (1967). Transvestism and transsexualism in the male and female.J. Sex Res. 3: 107–127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M. (1976). A typology of transsexualism: Gender identity theory and data.Arch. Sex. Behav. 5: 567–584.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, R. (1985). Typology of male-to-female transsexualism.Arch. Sex. Behav. 14: 247–261.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, R. (1988). Nonhomosexual gender dysphoria.J. Sex Res. 24: 188–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, R. (in press). The concept of autogynephilia and the typology of male gender dysphoria.J. Nerv. Ment. Dis.

  • Blanchard, R., Clemmensen, L. H., and Steiner, B. W. (1985a). Social desirability response set and systematic distortion in the self-report of adult male gender patients.Arch. Sex. Behav. 14: 505–516.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, R., Steiner, B. W., and Clemmensen, L. H. (1985b). Gender dysphoria, gender reorientation, and the clinical management of transsexualism.J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 53: 295–304.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, R., Racansky, I. G., and Steiner, B. W. (1986). Phallometric detection of fetishistic arousal in heterosexual male cross-dressers.J. Sex. Res. 22: 452–462.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, R., Clemmensen, L. H., and Steiner, B. W. (1987a). Heterosexual and homosexual gender dysphoria.Arch. Sex. Behav. 16: 139–152.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, R., Legault, S., and Lindsay, W. R. N. (1987b). Vaginoplasty outcome in male-to-female transsexuals.J. Sex Marital Ther. 13: 265–275.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, R., Steiner, B. W., Clemmensen, L. H., and Dickey, R. (1989). Prediction of regrets in postoperative transsexuals.Can. J. Psychiat. 34: 43–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buhrich, N., and McConaghy, N. (1978). Two clinically discrete syndromes of transsexualism.Br. J. Psychiat. 133: 73–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coates, S., and Zucker, K. J. (1988). Gender identity disorders in children. In Kestenbaum, C. J., and Williams, D. T. (eds.),Handbook of Clinical Assessment of Children and Adolescents, Vol. 2, New York University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, E., and Bockting, W. (1988). “Heterosexual” prior to sex reassignment—“homosexual” afterwards: A case study of a female-to-male transsexual.J. Psychol. Hum. Sex. 1: 69–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, E., Bockting, W., and Gooren, L. (1988). Homosexual and bisexual identity development in female-to-male transsexuals. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Academy of Sex Research, Minneapolis.

  • Eber, M. (1982). Primary transsexualism: A critique of a theory.Bull. Menninger Clin. 46: 168–182.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freund, K. (1974). Male homosexuality: An analysis of the pattern. In Loraine, J. A. (ed.),Understanding Homosexuality: Its Biological and Psychological Bases Medical and Technical Publishing, Lancaster, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freund, K. (1985). Cross-gender identity in a broader context. In Steiner, B. W. (ed.),Gender Dysphoria: Development, Research, Management Plenum Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freund, K., Steiner, B. W., and Chan, S. (1982). Two types of cross-gender identity.Arch. Sex. Behav. 11: 49–63.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamburger, C. (1953). The desire for change of sex as shown by personal letters from 465 men and women.Acta Endocrinol. 14: 361–375.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hirschfeld, M. (1906). Vom Wesen der Liebe [The essence of love].Jahrb. Sex. Zwischenstufen 8: 1–284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirschfeld, M. (1910).Die Transvestiten [Transvestites], 1st ed., Alfred Pulvermacher, Berlin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirschfeld, M. (1918)Sexualpathologie [Sexual Pathology], Vol. 2, Marcus & Weber, Bonn.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirschfeld, M. (1925).Die Transvestiten [Transvestites], 2nd ed., Ferdinand Spohr, Leipzig.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirschfeld, M. (1948).Sexual Anomalies Emerson Books, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoenig, J., and Kenna, J. C. (1974). The nosological position of transsexualism.Arch. Sex. Behav. 3: 273–287.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laub, D. R., and Fisk, N. (1974). A rehabilitation program for gender dysphoria syndrome by surgical sex change.Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 53: 388–403.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levine, S. B., and Lothstein, L. (1981). Transsexualism or the gender dysphoria syndromes.J. Sex Marital Ther. 7: 85–113.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lothstein, L. M. (1983).Female-to-Male Transsexualism: Historical, Clinical and Theoretical Issues Routledge & Kegan Paul, Boston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lothstein, L. M. (1985). Maternal issues in female-to-male transsexuals who have delivered and reared their children. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles.

  • Lukianowicz, N. (1959). Survey of various aspects of transvestism in the light of our present knowledge.J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 128: 36–64.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, J. K. (1974). Clinical variants among applicants for sex reassignment.Arch. Sex. Behav. 3: 527–558.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, J. K. (1982). The theory of gender identity disorders.J. Am. Psychoanal. Assoc. 30: 381–418.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Money, J., and Gaskin, R. J. (1970–1971). Sex reassignment.Int. J. Psychiat. 9: 249–269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newman, L. E., and Stoller, R. J. (1974). Nontranssexual men who seek sex reassignment.Am. J. Psychiat. 131: 437–441.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pauly, I. B. (1974). Female transsexualism: Part I.Arch. Sex. Behav. 3: 487–507.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Person, E., and Ovesey, L. (1974a). The transsexual syndrome in males. I. Primary transsexualism.Am. J. Psychother. 28: 4–20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Person, E., and Ovesey, L. (1974b). The transsexual syndrome in males. II. Secondary transsexualism.Am. J. Psychother. 28: 174–193.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Person, E., and Ovesey, L. (1978). Transvestism: New perspectives.J. Am. Acad. Psychoanal. 6: 301–323.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Person, E., and Ovesey, L. (1983). Psychoanalytic theories of gender identity.J. Am. Acad. Psychoanal. 11: 203–226.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Randall, J. B. (1959). Transvestism and trans-sexualism: A study of 50 cases.Br. Med. J. 2: 1448–1452.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rohleder, H. (1901).Vorlesungen über Geschlechtstrieb und Geschlechtsleben des Menschen [Lectures on the Sexual Drive and Sexual Life of Man], Fischers medizinische Buchhandlung, Berlin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoller, R. J. (1968).Sex and Gender. Hogarth, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoller, R. J. (1975).The Transsexual Experiment. Hogarth, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoller, R. J. (1980). Gender identity disorders. In Kaplan, H. I., Freedman, A. M., and Sadock, B. J. (eds.),Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry,, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoller, R. J. (1982). Near miss: “Sex change” treatment and its evaluation. In Zales, M. R. (ed.),Eating, Sleeping, and Sexuality Brunner/Mazel, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wålinder, J. (1967).Transsexualism: A Study of Forty-Three Cases Scandinavian University Books, Gothenburg, Sweden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webster's Third New International Dictionary. (1981). G. & C. Merriam, Springfield, MA.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Blanchard, R. The classification and labeling of nonhomosexual gender dysphorias. Arch Sex Behav 18, 315–334 (1989). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01541951

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01541951

Key words

Navigation