Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Sex stereotyping of infants: A review of gender labeling studies

  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Studies that have addressed the question of whether adults and children respond differently to male and female infants because of actual differences in the infants or because of preconceived sex stereotypes are reviewed, and the overall conclusions from these studies are evaluated. Twenty-three studies were identified in which neutrally clothed infant stimuli were labeled male in some conditions and female in other conditions. The strength and consistency of gender labeling effects on perceptions and behaviors in these studies were appraised. The results indicate that knowledge of an infant's gender is not a consistent determinant of adults' reactions, but more strongly influences young children's reactions. The implications of these findings for research on early sex role socialization are considered.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. Attitude-behavior relations: A theoretical analysis and review of empirical research. Psychological Bulletin 1977, 84 888–918.

    Google Scholar 

  • Archer, J., & Lloyd, B. Sex and gender. Cambridge, London: Cambridge University Press, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell, N., & Carver, W. A reevaluation of gender label effects: Expectant mothers' responses to infants. Child Development 1980, 51 925–927.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bem, S. The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1974, 42 155–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bem, S. Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review 1981, 88 354–364.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berndt, T., & Heller, K. Gender stereotypes and social inferences: A developmental study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1986, 50 889–898.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birns, B. The emergence and socialization of sex differences in the earliest years. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 1976, 22 229–254.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cherry, L., & Lewis, M. Mothers and two-year-year-olds: A study of sex-differentiated aspects of verbal interaction. Developmental Psychology 1976, 2 278–282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Condry, J., & Condry, S. Sex differences: A study of the eye of the beholder. Child Development 1976, 47 812–819.

    Google Scholar 

  • Condry, S., Condry, J., & Pogatshnik, L. Sex differences: A study of the ear of the beholder. Sex Roles 1983, 9, 697–704.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowan, G., & Hoffman, C. Gender stereotyping in young children: Evidence to support a concept-learning approach. Sex Roles 1986, 14 211–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Culp, E., Cook, A., & Housley, P. A comparison of observed and reported adult-infant interactions: Effects of perceived sex. Sex Roles 1983, 9 475–479.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darley, J., & Fazio, R. Expectancy confirmation process arising in the social interaction sequence. American Psychologist 1980, 35 867–881.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darley, J., & Gross, P. A hypothesis-confirming bias in labeling effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1983, 44 20–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deaux, K. From individual differences to social categories: Analysis of a decade's research on gender. American Psychological 1984, 39 105–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deaux, K., & Lewis, L. Structure of gender stereotypes: Interrelationships among components of gender label. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1984, 46 991–1004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delk, J., Madden, R., Livingston, M., & Ryan, T. Adult perceptions of the infant as a function of gender labeling and observer gender. Sex Roles 1986, 15 527–534.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eaton, W. Gender understanding and sex-role stereotyping in preschoolers: Implications for caregivers. Child Care Quarterly 1983, 12 28–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fagot, B. Sex differences in toddlers' behavior and parental reaction. Developmental Psychology 1974, 10 554–558.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fagot, B. The influence of sex of child on parental reactions to toddler children. Child Development 1978, 49 459–465.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fein, G., Johnson, D., Kosson, N., Stork, L., & Wasserman, L. Sex stereotypes and preferences in the toy choices of 20-month-old boys and girls. Developmental Psychology 1975, 11 525–528.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald, H. Infants and caregivers: Sex differences as determinants of socialization. In E. Donelson (Ed.), Women: A psychological perspective. New York: John Wiley, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frisch, H. Sex stereotypes in adult-infant play. Child Development 1977, 48 1671–1675.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haugh, S., Hoffman, C., & Cowan, G. The eye of the very young beholder: Sex typing of infants by young children. Children Development 1980, 51 598–600.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haviland, J. Sex-related pragmatics in infants' nonverbal communication. Journal of Communication 1977, 27 80–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herzog, E., Enright, M., Luria, Z., & Rubin, J. Do gender labels yield sex differences in performance, or is label a fable? Developmental Psychology 1982, 18 424–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hildebrandt, K., & Fitzgerald, H. Adults' perceptions of infant sex and cuteness. Sex Roles 1979, 5 471–481.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holman, J., & Williamson, A. Sex labeling: Adult perceptions of child behavior. Australian Journal of Early Childhood 1979, 4 41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Honig, A. Sex role socialization in early childhood. Young Children 1983, 38 57–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz, P. The development of female identity. In C. Koop & M. Kirkpatrick (Eds.), Becoming female: Perspectives on development. New York: Plenum Press, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, M., & Weinraub, M. Origins of early sex-role development. Sex Roles 1979, 5 135–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Light, R., & Pillemer, D. Summing up: The science of reviewing research. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E., & Jacklin, C. Psychology of sex differences. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, J., & Sobieszek, B. Effects of a child's sex on adult interpretations of its behavior. Developmental Psychology 1972, 6 42–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paludi, M., & Gullo, D. The effect of sex labels on adults' knowledge of infant development. Sex Roles 1986, 16 19–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pogrebin, L. Non-sexist parenting at home and at school. In B. Sprung (Ed.), Perspectives on non-sexist early childhood education. New York: Teachers College Press, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reis, H., & Wright, S. Knowledge of sex-role stereotypes in children aged 3 to 5. Sex Roles 1982, 8 1049–1056.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenkrantz, P., Vogel, S., Bee, H., Broverman, I., & Broverman, D. Sex role stereotyeps and self-concepts in college students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1986, 32 287–295.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, J., Provenzano, R., & Luria, Z. The eye of the beholder: Parents' views on sex of newborns. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 1974, 44 512–519.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruble, D. N., & Ruble, T. L. Sex stereotypes. In A. G. Miller (Ed.), In the eye of the beholder: Contemporary issues in stereotyping (pp. 188–252). New York: Prager, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seavey, C., Katz, P., & Zalk, S. Baby X: The effect of gender labels on adult responses to infants. Sex Roles 1975, 1 103–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shakin, M., Shakin, D., & Sternglanz, S. Infant clothing: Sex labeling for strangers. Sex Roles 1985, 12 955–964.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sidorowicz, L., & Lunney, G. Baby X revised. Sex Roles 1980, 6 67–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, C., & Lloyd, B. Maternal behavior and perceived sex of infant revisited. Child Development 1978, 49 1263–1265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, K., & Barclay, L. Kindergarten children's descriptive sex-stereotyping of infants. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 1979. 49 514–517.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P., & Daglish, L. Sex differences in parent and infant behavior in the home. Child Development 1977, 48 1250–1254.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sobieszek, B. Adult interpretations of child behavior. Sex Roles 1978, 4 579–588.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R. L., & Holahan, C. K. Negative and positive components of psychological masculinity and femininity and their relationships to self-reports of neurotic and acting out behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1979, 37 1673–1682.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spence, J., Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. Ratings of self and peers on sex role attributes and their relation to self-esteem and conceptions of masculinity and femininity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1975, 32 29–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stern, M., & Hildebrandt, K. Prematurity stereotype: Effects of labeling on adults' perceptions of infants. Developmental Psychology 1984, 20 360–362.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stern, M., & Karraker, K. Prematurity stereotyping among mothers of premature infants. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 1988, 13 253–262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stern, M., & Karraker, K. Modifying the prematurity stereotype: Impact of providing varied information. Journal of Clinical and Social Psychology 1989, 8 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wicker, A. W. Attitudes versus actions: The relationship of verbal and overt behavioral responses to attitude objects. Journal of Social Issues 1969, 25(4), 41–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Will, J., Self, P., & Datan, N. Maternal behavior and perceived sex of infant. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 1967, 46 135–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, J. E., & Bennett, S. M. The definition of sex stereotypes via the adjective check list. Sex Roles 1975, 1 327–337.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zucker, K., & Corter, C. Sex stereotyping in adult-infant interaction: Some negative evidence. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 1980, 50 160–164.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Counseling Psychology, State University of New York at Albany, 1400 Washington Avenue, 12222, Albany, New York

    Marilyn Stern

  2. West Virginia University, USA

    Katherine Hildebrandt Karraker

Authors
  1. Marilyn Stern
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Katherine Hildebrandt Karraker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Stern, M., Karraker, K.H. Sex stereotyping of infants: A review of gender labeling studies. Sex Roles 20, 501–522 (1989). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00288198

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00288198

Keywords

Search

Navigation