Article Figures & Data
Figures
- Figure 1.
Behavioral tasks. A, Reward-conditioning task: participants learned the reward associations of two colors and to sounds through a pavlovian conditioning paradigm. They were instructed to indicate the side of a sound or a color change by key presses. Correct answers received a nonzero reward, the amount of which depended on the preceding sound pitch (600 or 1000 Hz) or color (magenta or mustard). The reward was displayed graphically as the filled area of a bar as well as a number that corresponded to the amount of monetary reward in Euro cents. Incorrect answers received a reward of zero. B, Saccadic task in the postconditioning part of experiments 1 and 2: participants were instructed to make an eye movement from the fixation point to the target (a ring). In each trial, the participant started by maintaining eye position on the fixation point for a random duration between 1300 and 1600 ms before a target circle was presented either above or below the fixation point, simultaneously with one of the following conditions: (1) with no distractor; (2) with a visual distractor either to the right or left side of the horizontal position of the fixation point; (3) with an auditory distractor presented on the right or left side of the headphone; and (4) with a bimodal distractor, which was composed of both the visual and auditory distractors presented on the same side relative to the fixation point. In experiment 2, one more condition was included, in which the auditory distractor was presented on the opposite side relative to the visual distractor.
- Figure 2.
The effect of reward value on saccade trajectories in experiment 1. A, Saccadic trajectories of the high- and low-reward visual and high- and low-reward auditory conditions (indicated by corresponding symbols and colors). B, Calculation of the angular trajectory deviation of the saccades. C, Baseline corrected, average angular deviations of saccade trajectories as shown in A and B served as a measure of oculomotor interference created by the visual, auditory, and bimodal distractors with either high or low reward value (only bimodal distractors with congruent reward values are shown in C). Positive values indicate that the saccadic trajectories deviate toward the distractor, while negative values indicate deviations away from the distractor. Visual distractors associated with the high reward value resulted in significantly larger deviations away from the distractor, compared with low-value distractors. D, Baseline corrected saccadic trajectory deviations in all bimodal conditions. From left to right: congruent-reward/both high-value, congruent-reward/both low-value, incongruent-reward/visual low-value and auditory high-value, and incongruent-reward/visual high-value and auditory low-value conditions. Saccade trajectories had significantly larger deviations when reward values were congruent compared with when they were incongruent across modalities. Error bars indicate the SEM. Asterisk corresponds to a significance level of p < 0.05.
- Figure 3.
The effect of reward value on saccade trajectories in experiment 2. A, Baseline corrected saccadic trajectory deviations in high- versus low-reward value conditions of visual, auditory, bimodal/same-side and bimodal/opposite-sides. The thin error bars and the dashed connecting line between them correspond to the preconditioning part, and the thick error bars and the solid connecting line between them indicate the data of the postconditioning part. A RANOVA revealed a significant main effect of reward in Post compared with Pre across all modalities (see the main text for details). B, Baseline corrected saccadic trajectory deviation in all bimodal conditions. C, Analysis of bimodal conditions shown in B showed a significant effect of visual reward. Two follow-up robust regression analyses revealed that the size of this effect (shown on the Y-axis) was reliably predicted by the magnitude of perceived difference between bimodal stimuli on the same versus opposite sides. The contrast between the two bimodal conditions (bimodal same side − bimodal opposite side) was calculated as the difference in trajectory deviations of these conditions in Pre (shown on the X-axis of top panel) and the difference in the end point distance of saccades measured during an independent saccadic localization task performed before the associative learning (shown on the X-axis of bottom panel). Error bars indicate the SEM.
Tables
- Table 1
Latencies, durations and the distances of the end points of saccades from the target in experiment 1
Visual Auditory Bimodal/reward congruent Bimodal/reward incongruent (high reward visual/low reward auditory) Bimodal/reward incongruent (low reward visual/high reward auditory) No distractor Latency (ms) high reward 218.19 ± 23.39 188.33 ± 20.98 196.94 ± 20.72 197.07 ± 19.26 198.37 ± 19.58 211.27 ± 23.95 Latency (ms) low reward 217.41 ± 20.42 186.72 ± 20.42 201.26 ± 21.82 Duration (ms) high reward 44.38 ± 33.17 44.74 ± 3.37 43.91± 3.32 43.97 ± 3.24 44.63 ± 3.66 44.90 ± 3.51 Duration (ms) low reward 44.50 ± 3.32 44.16 ± 3.33 44.26 ± 3.76 Distance of end point from target (°) high reward 0.87 ± 0.27 0.89 ± 0.32 0.91 ± 0.29 0.9 ± 0.29 0.91 ± 0.36 0.86 ± 0.24 Distance of end pointfrom target (°) low reward 0.89 ± 0.28 0.91 ± 0.29 0.90 ± 0.23 - Table 2
Latencies of saccades in experiment 2, before and after learning of reward associations
Visual Auditory Same side/congruent reward/ bimodal Same side/ bimodal (high reward visual/low reward auditory) Same side bimodal (low reward visual/high reward auditory) Opposite side/congruent reward/ bimodal Opposite side bimodal (high reward visual/low reward auditory) Same side bimodal (low reward visual/high reward auditory) No distractor Latency (ms) high reward Pre 202.08 ± 23.85 174.21 ± 19.01 182.02 ± 20.24 180.63 ± 20.33 182.20 ± 20.51 178.01 ± 19.93 180.60 ± 20.44 184.58 ± 21.80 193.30 ± 24.16 Latency (ms) low reward Pre 204.28 ± 25.95 173.35 ± 18.92 183.24 ± 20.83 184.19 ± 21.23 Latency (ms) high reward Post 180.64 ± 24.28 158.97 ± 18.10 164.01 ± 19.38 164.92 ± 17.52 166.62 ± 19.49 164.20 ± 18.73 164.68 ± 18.38 167.98 ± 19.78 193.30 ± 24.16 Latency (ms) low reward Post 182.53 ± 24.16 159.22 ± 18.2976 168.00 ± 20.63 166.95 ± 19.38 - Table 3
Durations of saccades in experiment 2, before and after learning of reward associations
Visual Auditory Same side/congruent reward/ bimodal Same side/bimodal (high reward visual/low reward auditory) Same side bimodal (low reward visual/high reward auditory) Opposite side/congruent reward/ bimodal Opposite side bimodal (high reward visual/low reward auditory) Same side bimodal (low reward visual/high reward auditory) No distractor Duration (ms) high reward Pre 43.93 ± 4.00 43.73 ± 4.18 43.65 ± 4.25 43.91 ± 3.99 43.68 ± 4.29 43.75 ± 4.03 43.57 ± 3.93 43.88 ± 4.09 44.05 ± 4.14 Duration (ms) low reward Pre 43.88 ± 4.17 43.74 ± 4.30 43.60 ± 4.09 43.92 ± 4.11 Duration (ms) high reward Post 43.51 ± 3.31 43.08 ± 3.76 43.32 ± 3.62 43.15 ± 3.38 43.35 ± 3.70 43.40 ± 3.94 43.34 ± 3.44 43.35 ± 3.77 43.78 ± 3.75 Duration (ms) low reward Post 43.66 ± 3.96 43.53 ± 4.16 43.62 ± 4.06 43.60 ± 3.84 - Table 4
The distances of saccade end points from the target in experiment 2, before and after learning of reward associations
Visual Auditory Same side/congruent reward/ bimodal Same side/ bimodal (high reward visual/low reward auditory) Same side bimodal (low reward visual/high reward auditory) Opposite side/congruent reward/ bimodal Opposite side bimodal (high reward visual/low reward auditory) Same side bimodal (low reward visual/high reward auditory) No distractor Distance of end point from target (°) high reward Pre 0.86 ± 0.19 0.85 ± 0.15 0.87 ± 0.17 0.88 ± 0.19 0.84 ± 0.18 0.88 ± 0.19 0.85 ± 0.16 0.89 ± 0.16 0.83 ± 0.17 Distance of end point from target (°) low reward Pre 0.85 ± 0.16 0.85 ± 0.17 0.86 ± 0.17 0.88 ± 0.19 Distance of end point from target (°) high reward Post 0.91 ± 0.22 0.88 ± 0.2 0.91 ± 0.22 0.88 ± 0.2 0.92 ± 0.22 0.92 ± 0.21 0.89 ± 0.19 0.91 ± 0.22 0.89 ± 0.20 Distance of end point from target (°) low reward Post 0.91 ± 0.23 0.90 ± .20 0.91 ± .21 0.92 ± .20
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