Article Figures & Data
Figures
- Figure 1.
Experimental design flowchart. a, Overview of the experimental procedure; (b) VRMS block; (c) VRAO block; (d) VRMI block. VRMS, virtual reality music stimulation; VRAO, virtual reality action observation; VRMI, virtual reality motor imagination.
- Figure 2.
Brain region locations of specific fNIRS channels. a, The subject's posture during the experiment. A1, Schematic diagram showing the fNIRS device positioned on the subject's head. b, Schematic of the light sources, detectors, and fNIRS channels; different colors indicate the distribution across brain regions. c, Distribution of ROIs corresponding to each channel in the FASTRAK 3D digital positioning system, based on BA standards (Amunts and Zilles, 2015). DLPFC, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; FPA, frontopolar area; S1, primary sensory cortex; PM&SMA, premotor cortex and supplementary motor area.
- Figure 3.
Brain activation and network connectivity results. VRMS, virtual reality music stimulation; VRAO, virtual reality action observation; VRMI, virtual reality motor imagination; HBO, oxygenated hemoglobin; ROIs, regions of interest. a, b, Brain activation maps for HBO and HBT, respectively. c, e, Homologous brain networks based on HBO and HBT, respectively. d, h, g, Heterogeneous brain networks (HBO) for VRMS, VRAO, and VRMI, respectively. f, j, i, Heterogeneous brain networks (HBT) for VRMS. Significance levels: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01. All the significant differences based on FDR correction.
- Figure 4.
Heterogeneous brain-network connectivity results. VRMS, virtual reality music stimulation; VRAO, virtual reality action observation; VRMI, virtual reality motor imagination; HBO, oxygenated hemoglobin; ROIs, regions of interest. a–c, Heterogeneous brain networks based on HBO for VRMS, VRAO, and VRMI, respectively. d–f, Heterogeneous brain networks based on HBT for VRMS, VRAO, and VRMI, respectively. g, h, Heterogeneous brain networks based on HBT and HBO for the comparisons between VRMS and VRAO, respectively. i, The remaining task comparisons showed no statistical significance. Significance levels: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01. All the significant differences based on FDR correction.
Tables
ROIs Mean ± standard deviation VRMS vs VRAO VRMS vs VRMI VRAO vs VRMI VRMS VRAO VRMI t value p value t value p value t value p value RDLPFC −0.025 ± 0.063 −0.013 ± 0.06 −0.028 ± 0.073 −0.995 0.325 0.193 0.848 1.032 0.307 RFPA −0.029 ± 0.087 −0.017 ± 0.07 −0.028 ± 0.073 −0.705 0.484 −0.078 0.938 0.685 0.497 LDLPFC −0.015 ± 0.06 −0.022 ± 0.083 −0.017 ± 0.121 0.523 0.603 0.099 0.921 −0.272 0.787 LFPA −0.016 ± 0.063 −0.019 ± 0.062 −0.034 ± 0.084 0.207 0.837 1.245 0.219 1.036 0.305 RS1 0.006 ± 0.047 −0.006 ± 0.05 −0.01 ± 0.056 1.395 0.169 1.680 0.099 0.471 0.640 RM1 0.002 ± 0.06 −0.003 ± 0.051 −0.024 ± 0.063 0.455 0.651 2.000 0.051 1.984 0.053 RPMSMA −0.005 ± 0.04 −0.002 ± 0.048 −0.025 ± 0.06 −0.351 0.727 1.896 0.064 2.537 0.014* LM1 0.002 ± 0.057 0.001 ± 0.048 −0.019 ± 0.072 0.148 0.883 1.681 0.099 1.733 0.089 LS1 −0.004 ± 0.044 0 ± 0.045 −0.008 ± 0.058 −0.554 0.582 0.406 0.687 0.945 0.349 LPMSMA −0.004 ± 0.047 −0.005 ± 0.047 −0.023 ± 0.06 0.156 0.876 1.689 0.098 1.903 0.063 “L” represents the left side; “R” represents the right side. VRMS, virtual reality music stimulation; VRAO, virtual reality action observation; VRMI, virtual reality motor imagination; HBO, oxygenated hemoglobin; ROIs, brain regions of interest.
↵* p < 0.05.
ROIs Mean ± standard deviation VRMS vs VRAO VRMS vs VRMI VRAO vs VRMI VRMS VRAO VRMI t/z value p value t/z value p value t value p value RDLPFC −0.023 ± 0.058 −0.004 ± 0.074 −0.033 ± 0.080 −1.453a 0.146 0.746 0.459 2.129 0.038* RFPA −0.033 ± 0.084 −0.006 ± 0.073 −0.036 ± 0.079 −1.989 0.052 0.220 0.827 2.297 0.026* LDLPFC −0.010 ± 0.061 −0.034 ± 0.089 −0.038 ± 0.128 −0.864a 0.388 1.440 0.156 0.242 0.810 LFPA −0.019 ± 0.064 −0.018 ± 0.055 −0.034 ± 0.082 −0.061 0.952 −0.738a 0.460 1.136 0.261 RS1 0.006 ± 0.045 −0.001 ± 0.045 −0.009 ± 0.065 −0.265a 0.791 1.428 0.160 0.774 0.442 RM1 0.003 ± 0.054 −0.001 ± 0.053 −0.030 ± 0.055 0.288 0.774 −2.196a 0.028* 3.078 0.003** RPMSMA 0 ± 0.046 0 ± 0.047 −0.017 ± 0.063 −0.013 0.989 1.526 0.133 1.819 0.075 LM1 0.005 ± 0.054 −0.001 ± 0.048 −0.019 ± 0.065 −0.179a 0.858 2.065 0.044* 1.826 0.074 LS1 0.007 ± 0.042 0.001 ± 0.042 −0.009 ± 0.054 0.752 0.455 1.835 0.073 1.229 0.225 LPMSMA −0.001 ± 0.044 −0.001 ± 0.043 −0.016 ± 0.054 −0.027 0.979 1.414 0.164 1.771 0.083 “L” represents the left side; “R” represents the right side. VRMS, virtual reality music stimulation; VRAO, virtual reality action observation; VRMI, virtual reality motor imagination; HBT, total hemoglobin; ROIs, brain regions of interest.
↵* 0.01 < p < 0.05.
↵** 0.001 < p < 0.01.
↵a Two related samples nonparametric test. And parametric t tests were used for the remaining comparative analyses.
- Table 3.
Differences in FC for homologous ROIs between VRMS, VRAO, and VRMI in HBO signals
ROIs Mean ± standard deviation VRMS vs VRAO VRMS vs VRMI VRAO vs VRMI VRMS VRAO VRMI t value p value (FDR) t value p value (FDR) t value p value (FDR) LDLPFC 0.745 ± 0.191 0.782 ± 0.145 0.770 ± 0.186 −1.181 0.405 −0.748 0.619 0.443 1.099 RDLPFC 0.714 ± 0.222 0.632 ± 0.260 0.673 ± 0.278 2.095 0.103 1.199 0.590 −1.045 1.003 LS1 0.761 ± 0.152 0.747 ± 0.151 0.741 ± 0.153 0.654 0.737 0.975 0.619 0.293 1.101 RS1 0.806 ± 0.132 0.747 ± 0.183 0.743 ± 0.205 2.283 0.089 2.543 0.071 0.151 1.101 LPMSMA 0.740 ± 0.146 0.666 ± 0.179 0.681 ± 0.181 3.198 0.024* 2.725 0.071 −0.566 1.099 RPMSMA 0.736 ± 0.145 0.674 ± 0.176 0.689 ± 0.183 2.369 0.089 1.817 0.251 −0.548 1.099 LFPA 0.743 ± 0.151 0.677 ± 0.259 0.718 ± 0.242 1.854 0.139 0.846 0.619 −1.098 1.003 RFPA 0.760 ± 0.203 0.748 ± 0.184 0.780 ± 0.136 0.401 0.862 −0.688 0.619 −1.481 1.003 “L” represents the left side; “R” represents the right side. VRMS, virtual reality music stimulation; VRAO, virtual reality action observation; VRMI, virtual reality motor imagination; HBO, oxygenated hemoglobin; ROIs, brain regions of interest; FDR, false discovery rate; FC, functional connectivity; only one brain channel in brain regions LM1 and RM1 is not discussed.
↵* p < 0.05.
- Table 4.
Differences in FC for homologous ROIs between VRMS, VRAO, and VRMI in HBT signals
ROIs Mean ± standard deviation VRMS vs VRAO VRMS vs VRMI VRAO vs VRMI VRMS VRAO VRMI t value p value (FDR) t value p value (FDR) t value p value (FDR) LDLPFC 0.695 ± 0.269 0.751 ± 0.147 0.706 ± 0.252 −1.511 0.196 −0.281 0.975 1.482 0.483 RDLPFC 0.643 ± 0.263 0.534 ± 0.361 0.589 ± 0.359 2.095 0.083 1.136 0.436 −1.283 0.513 LS1 0.758 ± 0.146 0.722 ± 0.179 0.733 ± 0.167 1.536 0.196 1.185 0.436 −0.508 0.767 RS1 0.809 ± 0.121 0.722 ± 0.195 0.738 ± 0.221 4.023 0.002** 2.990 0.044* −0.624 0.765 LPMSMA 0.717 ± 0.170 0.643 ± 0.213 0.680 ± 0.177 3.169 0.009** 1.674 0.335 −1.481 0.483 RPMSMA 0.702 ± 0.157 0.613 ± 0.219 0.653 ± 0.214 3.574 0.004** 1.808 0.335 −1.516 0.483 LFPA 0.653 ± 0.255 0.564 ± 0.353 0.604 ± 0.381 2.461 0.044* 1.263 0.436 −0.864 0.653 RFPA 0.704 ± 0.300 0.635 ± 0.352 0.672 ± 0.292 1.311 0.245 0.613 0.776 −1.135 0.524 “L” represents the left side; “R” represents the right side. VRMS, virtual reality music stimulation; VRAO, virtual reality action observation; VRMI, virtual reality motor imagination; HBT, total hemoglobin; ROIs, brain regions of interest; FDR, false discovery rate; FC, functional connectivity; Only one brain channel in brain regions LM1 and RM1 is not discussed.
↵* 0.01 < p < 0.05.
↵** 0.001 < p < 0.01.
- Table 5.
Differences in FC for heterologous ROIs between VRMS, VRAO, and VRMI in HBO signals
ROIs Functional interaction brain regions VRMS vs VRAO VRMS vs VRMI VRAO vs VRMI t value p value (FDR) t value p value (FDR) t value p value (FDR) LDLPFC RDLPFC 0.245 0.826 −0.278 0.929 −0.610 0.748 LS1 0.256 0.826 0.137 0.942 −0.134 0.934 RS1 1.366 0.236 0.221 0.929 −1.040 0.593 LPM&SMA 0.552 0.640 0.047 0.963 −0.530 0.748 RPM&SMA −0.333 0.794 −0.448 0.929 −0.109 0.934 LM1 1.283 0.250 0.882 0.748 −0.455 0.792 RM1 1.967 0.099 −0.100 0.942 −2.071 0.410 L FPA −0.150 0.881 −0.763 0.809 −0.714 0.748 RFPA 0.806 0.477 −0.630 0.913 −1.494 0.410 RDLPFC LS1 2.760 0.061 1.608 0.474 −0.602 0.748 RS1 2.137 0.089 1.482 0.474 −0.538 0.748 LPM&SMA 2.553 0.069 1.680 0.474 −0.858 0.740 RPM&SMA 1.547 0.193 1.647 0.474 −0.109 0.934 LM1 2.790 0.061 0.147 0.942 −2.021 0.410 RM1 2.912 0.061 0.905 0.748 −1.804 0.410 LFPA 2.376 0.081 0.437 0.929 −1.895 0.410 RFPA 2.151 0.089 0.289 0.929 −1.626 0.410 LS1 RS1 1.411 0.224 1.472 0.474 0.176 0.934 LPM&SMA 1.878 0.115 2.092 0.474 0.175 0.934 RPM&SMA 2.042 0.095 1.886 0.474 0.027 0.979 LM1 0.902 0.429 1.063 0.694 0.535 0.748 RM1 2.197 0.089 2.001 0.474 0.206 0.934 LFPA 2.597 0.069 1.225 0.637 −1.058 0.593 RFPA 1.984 0.099 0.416 0.929 −1.444 0.410 RS1 LPM&SMA 1.586 0.185 0.552 0.929 −1.138 0.586 RPM&SMA 3.110 0.061 1.722 0.474 −1.076 0.593 LM1 2.015 0.097 1.495 0.474 −0.568 0.748 RM1 2.295 0.084 0.989 0.702 −1.508 0.410 LFPA 2.376 0.081 0.605 0.913 −1.444 0.410 RFPA 1.510 0.200 0.124 0.942 −1.281 0.516 LPM&SMA RPM&SMA 2.212 0.089 1.713 0.474 −0.718 0.748 LM1 1.332 0.243 1.081 0.694 −0.207 0.934 RM1 1.793 0.132 1.029 0.694 −0.666 0.748 LFPA 2.327 0.083 0.819 0.781 −1.463 0.410 RFPA 2.764 0.061 1.062 0.694 −1.491 0.410 RPM&SMA LM1 2.123 0.089 1.482 0.474 −0.670 0.748 RM1 3.793 0.018* 1.856 0.474 −1.668 0.410 LFPA 1.444 0.218 −0.339 0.929 −1.758 0.410 RFPA 2.059 0.095 0.232 0.929 −1.558 0.410 LM1 RM1 1.310 0.245 1.682 0.474 0.535 0.748 LFPA 2.114 0.089 1.228 0.637 −0.686 0.748 RFPA 1.068 0.344 −0.272 0.929 −1.221 0.540 RM1 LFPA 2.667 0.066 0.486 0.929 −1.775 0.410 RFPA 1.625 0.178 −0.373 0.929 −1.858 0.410 LFPA RFPA 2.413 0.081 −0.309 0.929 −2.362 0.410 “L” represents the left side; “R” represents the right side. VRMS, virtual reality music stimulation; VRAO, virtual reality action observation; VRMI, virtual reality motor imagination; HBO, oxygenated hemoglobin; ROIs, brain regions of interest.; FDR, false discovery rate; FC, functional connectivity.
↵* p < 0.05.
- Table 6.
Differences in FC for heterologous ROIs between VRMS, VRAO, and VRMI in HBT signals
ROIs Functional interaction brain regions VRMS vs VRAO VRMS vs VRMI VRAO vs VRMI t value p value (FDR) t value p value (FDR) t value p value (FDR) LDLPFC RDLPFC 0.822 0.435 0.063 0.950 −0.874 0.689 LS1 0.935 0.380 −0.106 0.950 −0.943 0.685 RS1 1.483 0.197 0.567 0.737 −0.635 0.792 LPM&SMA 1.615 0.159 0.075 0.950 −1.639 0.675 RPM&SMA 0.480 0.641 −0.269 0.911 −0.656 0.792 LM1 1.827 0.111 0.835 0.573 −0.852 0.689 RM1 2.794 0.029* 0.743 0.629 −1.741 0.675 L FPA 1.297 0.250 0.097 0.950 −1.322 0.681 RFPA 0.997 0.355 −0.194 0.929 −1.089 0.681 RDLPFC LS1 3.231 0.013* 2.501 0.252 −0.322 0.897 RS1 3.041 0.019* 2.069 0.252 −0.997 0.681 LPM&SMA 3.886 0.004** 2.175 0.252 −1.921 0.675 RPM&SMA 2.131 0.081 1.860 0.254 −0.310 0.897 LM1 3.819 0.004** 1.957 0.252 −1.649 0.675 RM1 2.758 0.029* 1.300 0.409 −1.193 0.681 LFPA 2.174 0.078 0.944 0.562 −1.196 0.681 RFPA 2.115 0.081 0.395 0.822 −1.724 0.675 LS1 RS1 1.898 0.099 0.904 0.573 −0.985 0.681 LPM&SMA 1.750 0.125 1.146 0.463 −0.668 0.792 RPM&SMA 2.746 0.029* 1.441 0.390 −1.068 0.681 LM1 0.469 0.641 1.233 0.419 1.013 0.681 RM1 1.236 0.259 2.076 0.252 0.907 0.689 LFPA 1.423 0.207 1.095 0.482 −0.249 0.928 RFPA 2.083 0.083 1.404 0.395 −0.424 0.897 RS1 LPM&SMA 1.986 0.095 0.472 0.798 −1.429 0.681 RPM&SMA 3.858 0.004** 1.886 0.254 −1.572 0.675 LM1 1.915 0.099 1.986 0.252 −0.105 0.940 RM1 2.857 0.028* 2.488 0.252 −0.165 0.940 LFPA 1.231 0.259 1.308 0.409 0.382 0.897 RFPA 2.284 0.071 1.493 0.376 −0.572 0.828 LPM&SMA RPM&SMA 3.423 0.010** 0.952 0.562 −1.958 0.675 LM1 1.282 0.250 1.308 0.409 0.318 0.897 RM1 1.913 0.099 1.611 0.320 0.023 0.982 LFPA 2.239 0.074 0.841 0.573 −1.519 0.675 RFPA 3.420 0.010** 1.270 0.411 −2.115 0.675 RPM&SMA LM1 3.205 0.013* 1.822 0.254 −0.129 0.940 RM1 4.050 0.004** 2.440 0.252 −0.706 0.792 LFPA 1.003 0.355 −0.224 0.926 −1.265 0.681 RFPA 2.359 0.063 0.862 0.573 −1.175 0.681 LM1 RM1 2.016 0.092 2.069 0.252 −0.154 0.940 LFPA 2.173 0.078 2.018 0.252 0.102 0.940 RFPA 2.367 0.063 1.754 0.257 −0.352 0.897 RM1 LFPA 2.590 0.041* 1.793 0.254 −0.481 0.890 RFPA 1.455 0.201 0.398 0.822 −0.978 0.681 LFPA RFPA 1.959 0.097 0.641 0.694 −1.284 0.681 “L” represents the left side; “R” represents the right side. VRMS, virtual reality music stimulation; VRAO, virtual reality action observation; VRMI, virtual reality motor imagination; HBO, oxygenated hemoglobin; ROIs, brain regions of interest; FDR, false discovery rate; FC, functional connectivity.
↵* 0.01 < p < 0.05.
↵** 0.001 < p < 0.01.
In this issue
