Article Figures & Data
Figures
- Figure 1.
Awake infant fMRI scanning and stimuli. a, For each MRI visit, we swaddled the infant, applied hearing protection, and placed the infant in a custom 32-channel infant head coil. Movies were projected in a mirror over infants’ eyes. Photo credit for images in the middle and right to Caitlin Cunningham Photography. Photo credit for the image on the left to Kris Brewer. b, Example frames from dynamic face stimuli. c, Example frames from dynamic body, object, and scene stimuli. d, Infants that had enough usable data to compute a whole-brain contrast image are plotted on the x-axis, ordered by age in months. Data collected using Coil 2011 are indicated in brown; data collected using Coil 2021 are indicated in blue. The darker color indicates inclusion in fROI analyses (see Materials and Methods for inclusion criteria).
- Figure 2.
Data quality metrics for awake infant fMRI. a, Variable amounts of data were acquired from each 30 day participant session (dark purple) and included in subruns (light purple). Bars indicate mean minutes of data per participant session; error bars are standard deviation. b, The amount of data included in subruns for a participant session was correlated with age. c, For participants that had enough data to compute whole-brain contrast maps, the proportion of motion (number of volumes with greater than 0.5 mm or radians of frame-to-frame displacement) was positively correlated with age. d, For participants with enough data to be included in fROI analyses, motion was not correlated with age. Statistics supporting additional analyses of tSNR in Extended Data Figure 2-1.
- Figure 3.
Cortical responses to faces in individual infants. Similarly aged individual infants with variable amounts of data (top panel, Inf35, 3.9 months, 7.85 min of data; bottom panel, Inf37, 4.6 months, 20.80 min of data) have face activations (faces > nonfaces) in IOG (a), the approximate location of OFA in adults; VTC (b), the approximate location of FFA in adults; STS (c); and MPFC (d). Relevant activations for each region are circled in red. Whole-brain contrast maps (faces > nonfaces) are displayed on a template BOLD image, truncated, and thresholded at z = 2.0–3.0 to enable visualization of face activations and allow for a direct comparison of activations between the two infants. Slice view is indicated below each image; the left hemisphere is on the left. Activations for every infant are available on OSF (https://osf.io/h7rbv/). Information aligning infants to Kosakowski et al. (2022a) is available on OSF (https://osf.io/h7rbv/).
- Figure 4.
Group face responses in the infant cerebral cortex. Whole-brain group random effect analysis of Coil 2021 (n = 23) at a lenient threshold (p < 0.05) revealed face activations (faces > nonfaces) in (a) IOG, the approximate location of OFA in adults; (b) VTC, the approximate location of FFA in adults; (c) STS; and (d) MPFC. Hot colors indicate face activations; cool colors indicate average response to nonfaces. Activation clusters did not survive correction for multiple comparisons. Activations for each region are shown on infant template BOLD image in coronal (top row), axial (middle row), and sagittal (bottom row) views and highlighted with a red circle. Results for Coil 2011 data are visualized in Extended Data Figure 4-1.
- Figure 5.
Face-selective responses in the infant cortex. In analyses collapsed across Coil 2011 and Coil 2021 datasets, we identified an fROI in each participant as the top 5% of voxels that responded more to faces than nonfaces within a large anatomical search space (first column, blue, projected onto an infant anatomical image) of (a) IOG, the approximate location of OFA; (b) VTC, the approximate location of FFA; (c) STS; (d) MPFC; and (e) EVC. For each region, cross-validated fROI analyses were conducted in all infants (n = 37) and separately in younger (n = 19) and older (n = 18) infants. Bar charts show the mean response across participants in each fROI to faces (purple), bodies (pink), objects (yellow), and scenes (green). Error bars indicate within-subject standard error (Cousineau, 2005). Symbols indicate one-tailed statistics from linear mixed effect models: †p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001. Additional statistics reported in Tables 1 and 2; post hoc analyses of the response to each condition as a function age are reported in Extended Data Figure 5-1 and Table 3.
- Figure 6.
Face selectivity is bilateral. In analyses collapsed across Coil 2011 and Coil 2021 datasets, we identified an fROI for each participant in each hemisphere in (a) IOG, the approximate location of OFA; (b) VTC, the approximate location of FFA; and (c) STS. For each region, cross-validated fROI analyses were conducted in all infants (n = 37). Bar charts show the mean response across participants in each fROI to faces (purple), bodies (pink), objects (yellow), and scenes (green). Error bars indicate within-subject standard error (Cousineau, 2005). Additional visualization reported in Extended Data Figure 6-1 and statistics reported in Table 4, and Extended Data Tables 4-1–4-5.
Tables
fROI Intercept Bodies Objects Scenes Age Motion Coil All infants IOG 1.08 (0.50) −1.07 (0.40) −0.67 (0.40) −2.05 (0.40) −0.39 (0.24) −0.59 (0.24) 0.14 (0.58) VTC 0.53 (0.26) −1.19 (0.29) −0.71 (0.29) −1.21 (0.29) −0.17 (0.12) 0.32 (0.12) 0.47 (0.26) STS 1.67 (0.28) −1.08 (0.25) −1.17 (0.25) −1.03 (0.25) 0.12 (0.14) 0.05 (0.14) −0.56 (0.32) MPFC 1.91 (0.40) −1.63 (0.33) −1.30 (0.33) −1.50 (0.33) −0.03 (0.20) 0.07 (0.20) −0.48 (0.46) EVC −0.58 (0.37) −0.35 (0.32) −0.82 (0.32) −0.20 (0.32) −0.30 (0.18) 0.17 (0.18) 0.63 (0.42) Youngest infants IOG 0.20 (0.82) −0.64 (0.52) −0.24 (0.52) −0.98 (0.52) −0.29 (0.52) 0.52 (0.52) 1.02 (0.99) VTC −0.08 (0.36) −1.01 (0.33) −0.66 (0.33) −0.64 (0.33) −0.38 (0.20) 0.21 (0.20) 0.67 (0.39) STS 1.25 (0.42) −0.92 (0.31) −0.93 (0.31) −0.84 (0.31) 0.21 (0.26) −0.35 (0.26) −0.36 (0.49) MPFC 1.20 (0.70) −0.99 (0.49) −0.68 (0.49) −1.25 (0.49) 0.10 (0.43) −0.24 (0.43) 0.05 (0.83) EVC −0.96 (0.57) −0.33 (0.35) −0.45 (0.35) −0.06 (0.35) −0.41 (0.36) 0.57 (0.36) 0.84 (0.69) Oldest infants IOG 2.25 (0.51) −1.53 (0.59) −1.11 (0.59) −3.18 (0.59) −0.27 (0.26) −0.71 (0.26) −1.10 (0.52) VTC 1.24 (0.39) −1.39 (0.44) −0.77 (0.44) −1.81 (0.44) 0.01 (0.19) −0.00 (0.19) 0.10 (0.39) STS 1.89 (0.38) −1.25 (0.37) −1.43 (0.37) −1.24 (0.37) 0.38 (0.21) 0.17 (0.20) −0.33 (0.42) MPFC 2.49 (0.49) −2.31 (0.44) −1.95 (0.44) −1.77 (0.44) 0.09 (0.29) 0.26 (0.27) −0.64 (0.57) EVC −0.02 (0.47) −0.37 (0.56) −1.21 (0.56) −0.34 (0.56) −0.16 (0.22) 0.16 (0.23) 0.02 (0.46) Parameter estimates from linear mixed effects models with beta values for each condition as predictors. Indicator-coded vectors used to test if body, object, and scene responses are each significantly less than the response to faces. Sex and z-scored age were coded as fixed effects, and the subject was coded as a random effect. Standard error is indicated in parentheses; p < 0.05 is indicated in bold; p < 0.10 is indicated in italics. A negative number in bold indicates a significantly lower response to that condition than to faces. The intercept indicates the magnitude of the face response relative to the baseline condition. Statistical models with weights added to account for variable amounts of data from each infant and each condition are reported in Extended Data Table 1-1.
Variable Sum Sq. Num. DF Den. DF F p IOG Condition 81.99 3 103.42 10.14 0.000006 Z-Scored age 18.41 1 90.74 6.83 0.01 Z-Scored motion 7.51 1 89.15 2.79 0.10 Coil 0.19 1 42.22 0.07 0.79 Condition * age 40.96 3 103.42 5.07 0.003 VTC Condition 35.87 3 103.43 8.05 0.00007 Z-Scored age 9.75 1 50.01 6.57 0.01 Z-Scored motion 2.79 1 49.24 1.88 0.18 Coil 5.06 1 32.59 3.40 0.07 Condition * age 9.89 3 103.43 2.22 0.09 STS Condition 33.72 3 96.30 10.20 0.000007 Z-Scored age 0.13 1 67.94 0.11 0.74 Z-Scored motion 0.67 1 66.92 0.61 0.44 Coil 3.42 1 31.70 3.11 0.09 Condition * age 6.01 3 96.30 1.82 0.15 MPFC Condition 62.72 3 107.72 10.32 0.000005 Z-Scored age 0.28 1 87.36 0.14 0.71 Z-Scored motion 0.05 1 86.22 0.03 0.87 Coil 2.24 1 44.74 1.11 0.30 Condition * age 7.35 3 107.72 1.21 0.31 EVC Condition 13.47 3 105.34 2.41 0.07 Z-Scored age 1.52 1 78.69 0.82 0.37 Z-Scored motion 5.24 1 77.72 2.81 0.10 Coil 4.35 1 40.39 2.33 0.13 Condition * age 11.38 3 105.34 2.03 0.11 IOG and VTC fROI 5.46 1 245.21 2.30 0.13 Condition 106.50 3 245.21 14.97 0.000000006 Z-Scored age 1.08 1 100.53 0.46 0.50 Z-Scored motion 3.96 1 98.40 1.67 0.20 Coil 2.53 1 43.70 1.07 0.31 fROI * condition 11.36 3 245.21 1.60 0.19 fROI * age 12.01 1 245.21 5.06 0.03 Condition * age 44.74 3 245.21 6.29 0.0004 fROI * condition * age 6.12 3 245.21 0.86 0.46 EVC and IOG fROI 56.10 1 244.38 24.15 0.000002 Condition 48.86 3 244.38 7.01 0.0002 Z-Scored age 8.15 1 134.70 3.51 0.06 Z-Scored motion 9.52 1 130.07 4.10 0.04 Coil 2.77 1 51.54 1.19 0.28 fROI * condition 46.60 3 244.38 6.69 0.0002 fROI * age 11.88 1 244.38 5.11 0.02 Condition * age 39.81 3 244.38 5.71 0.0009 fROI * condition * age 12.52 3 244.38 1.80 0.15 EVC and VTC fROI 26.55 1 244.74 15.09 0.0001 Condition 31.16 3 244.74 5.90 0.0007 Z-scored age 7.78 1 86.78 4.42 0.04 Z-Scored motion 3.14 1 85.36 1.79 0.19 Coil 7.82 1 40.51 4.44 0.04 fROI * condition 18.17 3 244.74 3.44 0.02 fROI * age 0.0004 1 244.74 0.0002 0.99 Condition * age 14.81 3 244.74 2.81 0.04 fROI * condition * age 6.46 3 244.74 1.22 0.30 EVC and STS fROI 95.36 1 244.35 43.57 0.0000000003 Condition 39.10 3 244.35 5.96 0.0006 Z-Scored age 4.18 1 61.29 1.91 0.17 Z-Scored motion 0.36 1 60.60 0.17 0.68 Coil 0.01 1 35.36 0.00 0.96 fROI * condition 8.09 3 244.35 1.23 0.30 fROI * age 0.65 1 244.35 0.30 0.59 Condition * age 15.01 3 244.35 2.29 0.08 fROI * condition * age 2.38 3 244.35 0.36 0.78 EVC and MPFC fROI 105.05 1 247.45 37.46 0.000000004 Condition 53.49 3 247.45 6.36 0.0004 Z-Scored age 2.78 1 74.04 0.99 0.32 Z-Scored motion 3.48 1 73.22 1.24 0.27 Coil 0.27 1 40.29 0.10 0.76 fROI * condition 22.70 3 247.45 2.70 0.046 fROI * age 1.47 1 247.45 0.52 0.47 Condition * age 10.83 3 247.45 1.29 0.28 fROI * condition * age 7.89 3 247.45 0.94 0.42 All results from linear mixed effect models are converted to ANOVA table with R function anova; p < 0.05 is indicated in bold; p < 0.10 is indicated in italics. The same models with weights added to account for variable amount of data collected from each infant and each condition are in Extended Data Table 2-1. Models testing for interaction between age and condition in each hemisphere are in Extended Data Table 2-2 (without weights) and Extended Data Table 2-3 (with weights).
fROI Intercepta Agea Motiona Coila IOG faceb 1.72 (0.72) 0.40 (0.49) −0.84 (0.49) −0.92 (0.99) IOG bodyb 0.12 (0.50) 0.03 (0.34) −0.37 (0.34) 0.06 (0.69) IOG objectb 0.39 (0.48) −0.13 (0.33) −0.01 (0.33) 0.31 (0.66) IOG scene −1.21 (0.44) −0.99 (0.29) −0.48 (0.29) 0.65 (0.60) VTC faceb 0.99 (0.34) 0.49 (0.24) −0.29 (0.23) −0.38 (0.47) VTC bodyb −0.66 (0.29) 0.33 (0.20) −0.47 (0.19) 0.46 (0.39) VTC objectb −0.44 (0.29) 0.45 (0.20) −0.18 (0.20) 0.95 (0.40) VTC scene −0.82 (0.34) −0.08 (0.23) 0.01 (0.23) 0.73 (0.46) STS faceb 2.00 (0.38) 0.33 (0.26) 0.36 (0.26) −1.18 (0.52) STS bodyb 0.37 (0.34) 0.38 (0.23) 0.51 (0.23) −0.15 (0.47) STS object 0.25 (0.28) 0.12 (0.19) 0.20 (0.19) −0.11 (0.38) STS sceneb 0.47 (0.26) −0.10 (0.18) 0.42 (0.17) −0.27 (0.35) MPFC face 2.24 (0.45) 0.06 (0.15) −0.74 (0.15) −1.24 (0.47) MPFC body −0.22 (0.53) −0.19 (0.34) 0.18 (0.34) 0.36 (0.72) MPFC object 0.88 (0.46) 0.02 (0.29) 0.32 (0.29) −0.85 (0.62) MPFC scene 0.31 (0.30) 0.25 (0.15) −0.34 (0.15) −0.17 (0.38) EVC face −0.37 (0.40) 0.32 (0.22) −0.58 (0.21) 0.21 (0.52) EVC bodyb −0.61 (0.55) 0.51 (0.38) 0.04 (0.37) 0.01 (0.75) EVC object −1.89 (0.35) −0.02 (0.22) −0.28 (0.21) 1.48 (0.47) EVC sceneb −0.62 (0.33) 0.12 (0.22) −0.44 (0.22) 0.32 (0.45) ↵a Parameters estimated with a linear mixed effect model in R. Condition responses indicated in the left column are the predictors, z-scored age coded as a fixed effect, and subject coded as a random effect. Standard error is indicated in parentheses. p < 0.05 is indicated in bold; p < 0.10 is indicated in italics.
↵b Model was singular due to negligible contribution of participant in the random effect term. A linear model without subject as a random effect produces the same results without a singular fit. Statistical models that included weights to account for the different amounts of data collected from each participant and each condition are reported in Table 3-1.
Variable Sum Sq. Num. DF Den. DF F p IOG Hemisphere 3.39 1 244.16 1.44 0.23 Condition 105.06 3 244.16 14.94 0.000000006 Z-Scored age 5.14 1 75.95 2.19 0.14 Z-Scored motion 6.86 1 74.94 2.92 0.09 Coil 1.59 1 37.97 0.68 0.42 Hemisphere * condition 1.83 3 244.16 0.26 0.85 Hemisphere * age 10.21 1 244.16 4.36 0.04 Condition * age 21.64 3 244.16 3.08 0.03 Hemi * condition * age 7.58 3 244.16 1.08 0.36 VTC Hemisphere 28.98 1 248.87 11.77 0.0007 Condition 78.71 3 248.87 10.66 0.000001 Z-Scored age 21.33 1 52.54 8.67 0.0048 Z-Scored motion 0.07 1 51.15 0.03 0.87 Coil 1.31 1 37.16 0.53 0.47 Hemisphere * condition 2.93 3 248.87 0.40 0.76 Hemisphere * age 0.58 1 248.87 0.24 0.63 Condition * age 12.10 3 248.87 1.64 0.18 Hemi * condition * age 4.13 3 248.87 0.56 0.64 STS Hemisphere 1.71 1 246.65 0.47 0.49 Condition 86.44 3 246.65 7.94 0.00004 Z-Scored age 1.87 1 99.03 0.52 0.47 Z-Scored motion 0.74 1 97.15 0.20 0.65 Coil 4.67 1 44.58 1.29 0.26 Hemisphere * condition 4.33 3 246.65 0.40 0.75 Hemisphere * age 11.15 1 246.65 3.07 0.08 Condition * age 49.50 3 246.65 4.55 0.004 Hemi * condition * age 2.73 3 246.65 0.25 0.86 All results from linear mixed effect models converted to ANOVA with R function anova; p < 0.05 is indicated in bold; p < 0.10 is indicated in italics. Statistics for models to test for face selectivity in each hemisphere are reported in Extended Data Table 4-1 (without weights) and Extended Data Table 4-2 (with weights). ANOVA tables from models testing for age by condition interactions in each fROI for each hemisphere are reported in Extended Data Table 2-3 (without weights) and Extended Data Table 2-4 (with weights). ANOVA tables for effects of age and hemisphere on face selectivity with weights to account for variable amounts of data collected from each infant and each condition are reported in Extended Data Table 4-3. Effects of age on each condition in each hemisphere are reported in Extended Data Table 4-4. Tests for interactions between hemisphere and age on each condition are reported in Extended Data Table 4-5.
Figure 2-1
Analyses of temporal signal-to-noise ratio (tSNR) in awake infant fMRI data. Plots show estimated effects of run length, run type (i.e., subruns (red) vs concatenated (blue)) on tSNR in (a) Coil 2011 and (b) Coil 2021 data. In Coil 2011 data (a), the tSNR decreases as a function of run length but the decrease is greater when the subruns are concatenated. In Coil 2021 data (b) the tSNR decreases as function of run length but this effect is not modulated by concatenating the runs. All estimated effects are plotted using plot_model from sjPlot package in R. Download Figure 2-1, TIF file.
Figure 4-1
Group face responses in infant cerebral cortex. Whole brain group random effects analysis of Coil 2011 at a lenient threshold (p < 0.05) revealed face activations (faces > non-faces) in (c) superior temporal sulcus (STS), and (d) medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC). Face activations were not observed in the group in (a) inferior occipital gyrus (IOG), the approximate location of OFA in adults or (b) ventral temporal cortex (VTC), the approximate location of FFA in adults. Hot colors indicate face activations, cool colors indicate average response to non-faces. Activation clusters did not survive correction for multiple comparisons. Activations for each region are shown on infant template BOLD image in coronal (top row), axial (middle row) and sagittal (bottom row) views and highlighted with a red circle. Results for Coil 2021 data are visualized in Figure 4. Download Figure 4-1, TIF file.
Figure 5-1
Effect of age on the response magnitude for each condition in each fROI. Scatter plots show magnitudes for each condition from fROI analyses collapsed across Coil 2011 and Coil 2021 datasets as a function of age. ROIs include (a) inferior occipital gyrus (IOG), the approximate location of OFA, (b) ventral temporal cortex (VTC), the approximate location of FFA, (c) superior temporal sulcus (STS), (d) medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC), and (e) early visual cortex (EVC). Face betas are plotted in purple, body betas are plotted in pink, object betas are plots in yellow, and scene betas are plotted in green. Age is z-scored. Symbols indicate statistics from linear mixed effects models: p < 0.05. Additional statistics reported in Table 3. Download Figure 5-1, TIF file.
Figure 6-1
Effect of age on the response magnitude for each condition in each fROI. Scatter plots show magnitudes for each condition from fROI analyses collapsed across Coil 2011 and Coil 2021 datasets as a function of age. ROIs include (a, b) left and right inferior occipital gyrus (IOG), the approximate location of OFA, (c, d) left and right ventral temporal cortex (VTC), the approximate location of FFA, and (e, f) superior temporal sulcus (STS). Age is z-scored. Face betas are plotted in purple, body betas are plotted in pink, object betas are plots in yellow, and scene betas are plotted in green. Symbols indicate statistics from linear mixed effects models: p < 0.1; p < 0.05; **p < 0.01. Additional statistics reported in Table 4-2. Download Figure 6-1, TIF file.
Table 1-1
Face selectivity in functional regions of interest with condition weights. Parameter estimates from linear mixed effects models with beta values for each condition as predictors. Indicator-coded vectors used to test if body, object, and scene responses are each significantly less than the response to faces. Sex and z-scored age were coded as fixed effects and subject was coded as a random effect. Standard error is indicated in paratheses; p < 0.05 is indicated in bold; p < 0.10 is indicated in italics. A negative number in bold indicates a significantly lower response to that condition to faces. The intercept indicates the magnitude of the face response relative to baseline. Statistical models without weights are reported in Table 1. Download Table 1-1, DOC file.
Table 2-1
Interaction effects of age and fROI with condition weights. All results from linear mixed effects models converted to ANOVA table with R function anova; p < 0.05 is indicated in bold, p < 0.10 is indicated in italics. The same models without weights reported in Table 2. Models testing for interaction between age and condition are in each hemisphere are in Table 2-2 (without weights) and Table 2-3 (with weights). Download Table 2-1, DOC file.
Table 2-2
Interaction effects of age in each fROI for each hemisphere. All results from linear mixed effects models converted to ANOVA table with R function anova; p < 0.05 is indicated in bold, p < 0.10 is indicated in italics. Models with weights are in Table 4-4. Download Table 2-2, DOC file.
Table 2-3
Interaction effects of age in each fROI for each hemisphere with condition weights. All results from linear mixed effects models converted to ANOVA with R function anova; p < 0.05 is indicated in bold, p < 0.10 is indicated in italics. Models without weights are in Table 4-3. Download Table 2-3, DOC file.
Table 3-1
Effect of age on each condition with condition weights. † Parameters estimated with a linear-mixed effects model in R. Condition response indicated in the left column are the predictors, z-scored age coded as a fixed effect, subject coded as a random effect. Standard error is indicated in paratheses. p < 0.05 is indicated in bold, p < 0.10 is indicated in italics. * Model was singular due to negligible contribution of participant in the random effects term. A linear model without subject as a random effect produces the same results without a singular fit. Statistical models without weights are reported in Table 3. Download Table 3-1, DOC file.
Table 4-1
Face selectivity in each fROI for each hemisphere. Parameter estimates from linear mixed effects models with beta values for each condition as predictors. Indicator-coded vectors used to test if body, object, and scene responses are each significantly less than the response to faces. Sex and z-scored age were coded as fixed effects and subject was coded as a random effect. Standard error is indicated in paratheses; p < 0.05 is indicated in bold; p < 0.10 is indicated in italics. A negative number in bold indicates a significantly lower response to that condition to faces. The intercept indicates the magnitude of the face response relative to baseline. Models with weights in Table 4-2. Download Table 4-1, DOC file.
Table 4-2
Face selectivity in fROI for each hemisphere with condition weights. Parameter estimates from linear mixed effects models with beta values for each condition as predictors. Indicator-coded vectors used to test if body, object, and scene responses are each significantly less than the response to faces. Sex and z-scored age were coded as fixed effects and subject was coded as a random effect. Standard error is indicated in paratheses; p < 0.05 is indicated in bold; p < 0.10 is indicated in italics. A negative number in bold indicates a significantly lower response to that condition to faces. The intercept indicates the magnitude of the face response relative to baseline. Models without weights in Table 4-1. Download Table 4-2, DOC file.
Table 4-3
Effect of age and hemisphere on face Selectivity in each fROI with condition weights. All results from linear mixed effects models converted to ANOVA with R function anova; p < 0.05 is indicated in bold, p < 0.10 is indicated in italics. Statistics for models without weights are reported in Table 4. Download Table 4-3, DOC file.
Table 4-4
Effect of Age on each condition in each hemisphere. † Parameters estimated with a linear-mixed effects model in R. Condition response indicated in the left column are the predictors, z-scored age coded as a fixed effect, subject coded as a random effect. Standard error is indicated in paratheses. p < 0.05 is indicated in bold, p < 0.10 is indicated in italics. * Model was singular due to negligible contribution of participant in the random effects term. A linear model without subject as a random effect produces the same results without a singular fit. No weights included in analyses. Download Table 4-4, DOC file.
Table 4-5
Effect of age and hemisphere on condition responses for each fROI. All results from linear mixed effects models converted to ANOVA with R function anova; p < 0.05 is indicated in bold, p < 0.10 is indicated in italics. No weights included in analyses. Download Table 4-5, DOC file.
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