The ON–OFF dichotomy in visual processing: From receptors to perception
Introduction
That the sensation of black is not the same as absence of light is one of the central tenets of Hering's teaching (Hering, 1874). Even before that, many authors commented on the fact that in complete darkness the experience is not that of black but of gray (within which sometimes floating clouds could be distinguished) leading to phrases such as “intrinsic light of the retina” or “eigengrau” (Goethe, 1808; Helmholtz, 1860; Purkinje, 1823).
Hering was quite explicit in differentiating between the physics of a situation and the corresponding perceptual experience. To be sure, energy impinging on the retina is proportional to that emitted by the source. But when viewing a sequence of stimuli progressively increasing in light intensity from a piece of black velvet to the disk of the sun, it is equally justified, so argued Hering, to regard this as a decrease in black as an increase in white. Hering took his point of departure by looking at the after-image of a bright patch. Even when all light is excluded from reaching the retina, the negative after-image appears distinctly darker than unaffected regions of the visual field. Hering proceeded to postulate that the sensations of black and white, though experienced within a single continuum, are separate, each going from zero to full intensity in opposite directions as the gray scale is traversed, maintaining an approximately equal level at an intermediate gray.
As the understanding of the physics of light came to permeate vision science, it supplanted the subjective view of a bidirectionality of sensation from gray to black on one side, and from gray to white on the other. The equipment and experimental procedures utilized in vision experiments helped this trend. One generated stimuli by turning light sources on, by delineating patterns in white on black, and, especially as cathode-ray tube monitors supplanted optical bench setups, by regarding blackness as the null or zero setting, and whiteness the active, positive one. Soon the systems-theoretical bent lent an air of inevitability to the use of targets that, instead of having a distinct polarity, were distributed in extent and modulated in amplitude around an intermediate light level. Contrast came to be specified by Michelson's formulawhich masks the distinction between stimulus and background, instead of the earlier Weber fraction, ΔI/I, for which the ratio between stimulus and background light levels can unambiguously be positive or negative. As a result, a qualitative, possibly categorical, difference between black and white sensations was downplayed or ignored.
In the meantime, physiological experiments on animal preparations pointed the other way. Of interest are those on vertebrates. One of the earliest recordings from the incoming visual stream, the optic nerve of the frog, reported that some fibers fired nerve impulses when a light was switched on, and others when it was switched off, with little activity during steady illumination (Hartline, 1935, Hartline, 1938). Apart from the demonstration of the transient nature of nerve signals dedicated to vision—and later the spatial sensitivity profile, the receptive field, soon to dominate such studies—the experiment highlighted the importance of up or down direction of the light change, and indeed the words ON and OFF responses entered the vocabulary at the time. When microelectrode recording from single neurons in the mammal became possible, the ON and OFF properties were associated with retinal ganglion cells of cats, with the additional significant observation that each type had a concentric antagonistic organization (Kuffler, 1953). Cells, both those showing an ON or an OFF response in the center of their receptive fields, manifested a change in the opposite direction in a concentrically arranged surround. In a contemporaneous study, Barlow was able to show that this kind of arrangement also occurred in the frog, that is, enlarging the diameter of a circular light stimulus leads first to an increase in cell response and, once the stimulus exceeds the center and invades the surround, a decrease, and that this holds for OFF cells as well as ON cells (Barlow, 1953).
In all these studies, reference is also made to an ON–OFF cell type, but in those early days it could not be convincingly demonstrated that these were a separate class of cells or the result of stimulus situations in which light directed into the receptive field overlapped the two zones, instead of being strictly segregated in a portions stimulating only the center or only the surround.
In what follows, attention is restricted to the non-chromatic aspect of vision with, it is hoped, no loss of generality, just as it is possible at some level to examine its spatial aspects while leaving motion aside.
Section snippets
Source of ON/OFF divide—internal retinal circuitry
Traditionally, the retina, being an outlying isolated piece of nervous tissue sharing essential properties with the brain proper, has been the first venue for detailed analyzes of neural circuitry and so it was in connection with the ON–OFF dichotomy originally discovered in optic nerve fibers. The photochemical and cellular light transduction stages in the retina in vertebrate photoreceptors, the rods and cones, were shown to fit in with the physicalist view of light exchange of
Input to the cortex
Quite early on, it was confirmed that the retinal ON/OFF organization also applies to cells in the lateral geniculate body (Hubel and Wiesel, 1961) whose axons provide the principal visual afferents to the primary visual cortex. Hence, it was evident from neurophysiological recording of the frog and cat, later demonstrated even in the alert primate, that the ON–OFF dichotomy is present in the visual stream from the retina to the first input stage of the primary visual cortex (Fig. 3).
More
ON/OFF dichotomy in visual perception
Evidence for the separation into ON and OFF components in the afferent stream in visual function and perception can be examined according to several criteria.
Benefits of ON/OFF bifurcation
The retinal recoding that produces strong and active signals in optic nerve fibers both for increases as well as for decreases in incident light can be interpreted as having benefits at two levels of visual processing, first by making the initial signals for small light changes more conspicuous, and, secondly, by accenting and segmenting contrast polarity of visual elements for purposes of perception.
Parallels with other opponencies
An analysis of the categorical distinction between the two directions of change, white→black and black→white, cannot be decoupled from the consideration of the highly developed ability to detect contrast differences, which have occupied vision scientists since the days of Weber and Fechner. And here we can return to Hering's idea that the darkest black and the brightest white are in fact just the outermost extremes, the polar opposites, within a single continuum wherein each achromatic level of
Future directions
That black and white are seen as antagonists rather than end-points in a single continuum, preceded visual science as a discipline and, surviving the physicists’ teaching of a monotonic rise in energy absorption and photochemical activity with increasing incident light levels, received underpinning from the discovery of separate ON and OFF signals in the retina.
The dichotomy has its origin at the very first synapse in the visual system where receptor signals are transmitted to the next tier of
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