The dorsomedial hypothalamus and the central pathways involved in the cardiovascular response to emotional stress

doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.03.018

Neuroscience

Volume 184, 16 June 2011, Pages 64-74

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.03.018 Get rights and content

Abstract

Psychological stress elicits increases in sympathetic activity accompanied by a marked cardiovascular response. Revealing the relevant central mechanisms involved in this phenomenon could contribute significantly to our understanding of the pathogenesis of stress-related cardiovascular diseases, and the key to this understanding is the identification of the nuclei, pathways and neurotransmitters involved in the organization of the cardiovascular response to stress. The present review will focus specifically on the dorsomedial hypothalamus, a brain region now known to play a primary role in the synaptic integration underlying the cardiovascular response to emotional stress.

Highlights

▶Psychological stress elicits a marked cardiovascular response. ▶The DMH is critical to the cardiovascular response to stress. ▶Chemical activation of DMH evokes a cardiovascular response similar to stress. ▶This approach helps to reveal the cardiovascular pathways activated during stress.

Section snippets

Stress: impact on the cardiovascular system

Psychological stress elicits increases in sympathetic activity that result in changes in the level of cardiac function and vascular resistance with consequent redistribution of blood flow. This physiological strategy enhanced the probability of survival for mammals faced with a physical threat in nature. However, with one-half of the world's population living in the cities (Ginkel, 2008), the impact of psychosocial stress has undoubtedly been a challenge for the cardiovascular system and body

DMH: anatomical organization

As functional studies involving the human hypothalamus are rare, comparison of the structural organization of the human hypothalamus with the hypothalamus of other species could provide a meaningful reference for extrapolating physiological findings obtained in studies involving hypothalamus of experimental animals to humans. In this regard, the human hypothalamus is now known to be significantly more homologous to the hypothalamus of the rat than was previously thought, and this seems to be

DMH: a Key region in the cardiovascular response to stress

The DMH plays a key role in coordinating the neuroendocrine, autonomic and behavioral responses to emotional stress (DiMicco et al., 2002). Similarly, the DMH has also been implicated as a key component of the “panic circuit”. Chronic disruption of GABAergic inhibition in the DMH leads to panic-like responses in rats (Johnson and Shekhar, 2006, Shekhar et al., 2006). In the pioneering experiments demonstrating a crucial role of DMH neurons in the cardiovascular response to acute stress, Lisa

Rostral ventrolateral medulla and the vasomotor component of the response to activation of the DMH

In the past decade, much has been learned about the descending pathways that mediate the sympathoexcitatory response evoked from the DMH. Previous anatomic studies indicated that the DMH contains no or very few neurons that project directly to the spinal cord (ter Horst and Luiten, 1986, Hosoya et al., 1987, Thompson et al., 1996). Therefore, the descending sympathoexcitatory pathway from the DMH should include one or more synaptic connections in supraspinal regions, such as the rostral

Raphe pallidus and the cardiac component of the response to activation of the DMH

The findings discussed above suggested that the pathway mediating the cardiac stimulation evoked by activation of the DMH was independent of the RVLM (Fontes et al., 2001). A search for the synaptic relay mediating the increase in heart rate caused by activation of DMH led to the raphe pallidus (RPa) as a potential candidate. Neurons in the RPa send direct projections to the upper thoracic intermediolateral cell column at those levels containing cardiac sympathetic preganglionic neurons (Amendt

Periaqueductal gray: a source of excitatory input to neurons in the DMH?

Ultimately, a model that relies on the regulation of neuronal activity through disinhibition must include a mechanism responsible for excitation of the neuronal population being studied (Morrison, 2004). As is seen after acute stress or disinhibition of neurons in the DMH with BMI, a tachycardic response can also be induced by stimulating neurons in the DMH with agonists of EAA receptors (Soltis and DiMicco, 1991a, Soltis and DiMicco, 1992, Tanaka and McAllen, 2008). The first structure

Nucleus tractus solitarius: stress, DMH and baroreflex modulation

Acute psychological stress and stimulation of the DMH can both generate physiological and behavioral responses, as described above, with the main cardiovascular effect being increases in HR and BP (Stotz-Potter et al., 1996a, Stotz-Potter et al., 1996b; Fontes et al., 2001, DiMicco et al., 2002, da Silva et al., 2003, de Menezes et al., 2006). In addition to these changes, it is known that both stress and stimulation of the DMH can modulate the baroreceptor reflex (Kunos and Varga, 1995, Hatton

Brain functional asymmetry and DMH

Left-right differences in the functional properties of bilateral nervous system regions are known as lateralization of function. This phenomenon has been observed at different levels of the neuraxis (Toga and Thompson, 2003, Stephan et al., 2007), including the hypothalamus from several species (Harris et al., 1996). Studies revealed that, under some conditions, stress may generate lateralized and imbalanced autonomic outflow (Critchley, 2005). This asymmetric autonomic activity may cause

Conclusion and perspectives

In conclusion, although many of the details regarding the role of the dorsomedial hypothalamus in the cardiovascular response to emotional stress remain to be determined, considerable progress has been made in the past few years in determining the central pathways involved. Undoubtedly, a critical step is to further investigate the implications of the lateralization observed in the descending pathways from the DMH. The role of the DMH in adverse cardiac events observed after cortical

Acknowledgments

Authors would like to thank the financial support provided by: (1) Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnologico do Brazil (CNPq) and Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais (Fapemig-PPM), Brazil; (2) USPHS Grant NS 19883, USA.

References (114)

W.W. Blessing et al.
Cell groups in the lower brain stem of the rabbit projecting to the spinal cord, with special reference to catecholamine-containing neurons
Brain Res
(1981)
K.G. Borelli et al.
Distribution of Fos immunoreactivity in the rat brain after freezing or escape elicited by inhibition of glutamic acid decarboxylase or antagonism of GABA-A receptors in the inferior colliculus
Behav Brain Res
(2006)
G. Bush et al.
Cognitive and emotional influences in anterior cingulate cortex
Trends Cogn Sci
(2000)
W.H. Cao et al.
Medullary pathways mediating specific sympathetic responses to activation of dorsomedial hypothalamus
Neuroscience
(2004)
W.H. Cao et al.
Disinhibition of rostral raphe pallidus neurons increases cardiac sympathetic nerve activity and heart rate
Brain Res
(2003)
P. Carrive
The periaqueductal gray and defensive behavior: functional representation and neuronal organization
Behav Brain Res
(1993)
D.F. Cechetto et al.
Functional neuroanatomy of autonomic regulation
Neuroimage
(2009)
L.G. da Silva et al.
Role of periaqueductal gray on the cardiovascular response evoked by disinhibition of the dorsomedial hypothalamus
Brain Res
(2003)
L.G. da Silva et al.
Excitatory amino acid receptors in the periaqueductal gray mediate the cardiovascular response evoked by activation of dorsomedial hypothalamic neurons
Neuroscience
(2006)
R.C. de Menezes et al.
Microinjection of muscimol into caudal periaqueductal gray lowers body temperature and attenuates increases in temperature and activity evoked from the dorsomedial hypothalamus
Brain Res
(2006)

R.W. de Oliveira et al.

Behavioral and c-fos expression changes induced by nitric oxide donors microinjected into the dorsal periaqueductal gray

Brain Res Bull

(2000)

J.A. DiMicco et al.

The dorsomedial hypothalamus and the response to stress: part renaissance, part revolution

Pharmacol Biochem Behav

(2002)

M. Dragunow et al.

The use of c-fos as a metabolic marker in neuronal pathway tracing

J Neurosci Methods

(1989)

E. Farkas et al.

Periaqueductal gray matter input to cardiac-related sympathetic premotor neurons

Brain Res

(1998)

J.A. Harris et al.

Diencephalic asymmetries

Neurosci Biobehav Rev

(1996)

J. Huang et al.

Distribution of sympathetic preganglionic neurons innervating the kidney in the rat: PRV transneuronal tracing and serial reconstruction

Auton Neurosci

(2002)

P.M. Hudson et al.

Neurones in the midbrain periaqueductal grey send collateral projections to nucleus raphe magnus and the rostral ventrolateral medulla in the rat

Brain Res

(1996)

A.S. Jansen et al.

Transneuronal labeling of CNS neuropeptide and monoamine neurons after pseudorabies virus injections into the stellate ganglion

Brain Res

(1995)

H. Kober et al.

Functional grouping and cortical-subcortical interactions in emotion: a meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies

Neuroimage

(2008)

Y. Koutcherov et al.

Hypothalamus of the human fetus

J Chem Neuroanat

(2003)

W. Lam et al.

Neuronal activation in the forebrain following electrical stimulation of the cuneiform nucleus in the rat: hypothalamic expression of c-fos and NGFI-A messenger RNA

Neuroscience

(1997)

J. LeDoux

The amygdala

Curr Biol

(2007)

M. Lisa et al.

Microinjection of muscimol into posterior hypothalamus blocks cardiovascular response to experimental stress in rats

Pharmacol Res

(1989)

A.D. Loewy

Raphe pallidus and raphe obscurus projections to the intermediolateral cell column in the rat

Brain Res

(1981)

E. Nalivaiko et al.

Raphe region mediates changes in cutaneous vascular tone elicited by stimulation of amygdala and hypothalamus in rabbits

Brain Res

(2001)

H. Okamura et al.

Neurons containing messenger RNA encoding glutamate decarboxylase in rat hypothalamus demonstrated by in situ hybridization, with special emphasis on cell groups in medial preoptic area, anterior hypothalamic area and dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus

Neuroscience

(1990)

S.M. Oppenheimer et al.

Cardiac chronotropic organization of the rat insular cortex

Brain Res

(1990)

M.B. Shaikh et al.

The pathways mediating affective defense and quiet biting attack behavior from the midbrain central gray of the cat: an autoradiographic study

Brain Res

(1987)

A. Siegel et al.

Neurotransmitters regulating defensive rage behavior in the cat

Neurosci Biobehav Rev

(1997)

P.A. Smith et al.

Relationship between central sympathetic activity and stages of human hypertension

Am J Hypertens

(2004)

K.E. Stephan et al.

Mechanisms of hemispheric specialization: insights from analyses of connectivity

Neuropsychologia

(2007)

E.H. Stotz-Potter et al.

Effect of microinjection of muscimol into the dorsomedial or paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus on air stress-induced neuroendocrine and cardiovascular changes in rats

Brain Res

(1996)

R.H. Thompson et al.

Organization of inputs to the dorsomedial nucleus of the hypothalamus: a reexamination with fluorogold and PHAL in the rat

Brain Res Brain Res Rev

(1998)

J. Amat et al.

Medial prefrontal cortex determines how stressor controllability affects behavior and dorsal raphe nucleus

Nat Neurosci

(2005)

K. Amendt et al.

Bulbospinal projections to the intermediolateral cell column: a neuroanatomical study

J Auton Nerv Syst

(1979)

H. Bester et al.

Organization of efferent projections from the parabrachial area to the hypothalamus: a Phaseolus vulgaris-leucoagglutinin study in the rat

J Comp Neurol

(1997)

W.W. Blessing

Lower brainstem pathways regulating sympathetically mediated changes in cutaneous blood flow

Cell Mol Neurobiol

(2003)

K.S. Butcher et al.

Receptors in lateral hypothalamic area involved in insular cortex sympathetic responses

Am J Physiol

(1998)

A.A. Cameron et al.

The efferent projections of the periaqueductal gray in the rat: a Phaseolus vulgaris-leucoagglutinin study. IAscending projections

J Comp Neurol

(1995)

R.R. Campos et al.

Cardiac inotropic, chronotropic, and dromotropic actions of subretrofacial neurons of cat RVLM

Am J Physiol

(1999)

D.F. Cechetto et al.

Subcortical sites mediating sympathetic responses from insular cortex in rats

Am J Physiol

(1990)

H.D. Critchley

Neural mechanisms of autonomic, affective, and cognitive integration

J Comp Neurol

(2005)

R.A. Dampney et al.

Medullary and supramedullary mechanisms regulating sympathetic vasomotor tone

Acta Physiol Scand

(2003)

R.A. Dampney et al.

What drives the tonic activity of presympathetic neurons in the rostral ventrolateral medulla?

Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol

(2000)

R.C. de Menezes et al.

Cardiovascular and thermal responses evoked from the periaqueductal grey require neuronal activity in the hypothalamus

J Physiol

(2009)

R.C. de Menezes et al.

Microinjection of muscimol into the periaqueductal gray suppresses cardiovascular and neuroendocrine response to air jet stress in conscious rats

Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol

(2008)

V. De Novellis et al.

Hypothalamic sites mediating cardiovascular effects of microinjected bicuculline and EAAs in rats

Am J Physiol

(1995)

H.S. Fang et al.

Cardioaccelerator and cardioaugmentor points in hypothalamus of the dog

Am J Physiol

(1962)

M.A. Fontes et al.

Descending pathways mediating cardiovascular response from dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus

Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol

(2001)

H.J. van Ginkel

Urban future

Nature

(2008)

Cited by (86)

Endocannabinoid modulation of synaptic function and behavior in the dorsomedial hypothalamus
2023, Neurobiology and Physiology of the Endocannabinoid System
Endogenous cannabinoids (eCBs) are ubiquitous neuromodulators that play a fundamental role in a wide range of physiological functions. Compelling evidence indicates that the eCB system is expressed in the dorsomedial hypothalamus (DMH), where eCBs are involved in the regulation of a number of homeostatic behaviors. In this chapter, we first describe evidence for the presence of the eCB system in the DMH. We then provide an overview of the role of eCBs in the regulation of food intake, the response to stress, and sleep–wake cycles. We end the chapter with a discussion on how eCBs interact with other non-classical neurotransmitters in the DMH. Understanding how endocannabinoids act in the DMH to regulate synaptic function and behavior will shed light on how these important neurotransmitters are involved in maintaining homeostasis.
Cholecystokinin acts in the dorsomedial hypothalamus of young male rats to suppress appetite in a nitric oxide-dependent manner
2021, Neuroscience Letters
Cholecystokinin (CCK) is an appetite-suppressing hormone that acts in the dorsomedial hypothalamus (DMH) in adult rats to suppress food intake. It remains unknown, however, whether CCK has the same affect in young animals, despite the rising prevalence of childhood obesity and drastic need for research in this area. At the synaptic level, CCK has been shown to inhibit putative orexigenic DMH neurons in young male rats by increasing GABA release onto these neurons via a CCK2 receptor and nitric oxide-dependent pathway. Whether this pathway leads to appetite suppression in young rats is not known. We therefore investigated whether intra-DMH administration of CCK, with or without inhibitors of the CCK2 receptor and nitric oxide signaling pathways, affects food intake in young, male, fasted Sprague-Dawley rats. We implanted bilateral guide cannulas into the DMH and allowed animals to recover from the surgery. Animals were then fasted for 24 h, following which they received intra-DMH microinjections of vehicle, CCK-8S, or CCK-8S combined with either LY-225910 (CCK2 receptor antagonist), L-NAME (a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor), or ODQ (a soluble guanylate cyclase inhibitor) and were given access to regular chow. Following a two hour refeeding period during which food intake, latency to feed, and body weight were measured, brains were subsequently removed to confirm cannula placement in the DMH. The effect of CCK on these parameters in rats given a high fat diet were also measured. Here we show that intra-DMH administration of CCK suppresses food intake and body weight in young rats. This effect requires activation of CCK2 receptors and nitric oxide signaling. Finally, CCK has no effect on consumption of a high fat diet when administered into the DMH. Overall, these findings demonstrate a potential pathway through which CCK might suppress appetite in young rats.
Ventromedial medullary pathway mediating cardiac responses evoked from periaqueductal gray
2020, Autonomic Neuroscience: Basic and Clinical
Periaqueductal gray (PAG) is a midbrain region that projects to areas controlling behavioral and autonomic outputs and is involved in the behavioral and physiological components of defense reactions. Since Raphe Pallidus (RPa) is a medial medullary region comprising sympathetic premotor neurons governing heart function, it is worth considering the PAG-RPa path. We assessed: i) whether PAG projects to RPa; ii) the amplitude of cardiac responses evoked from PAG; iii) whether cardiovascular responses evoked from PAG rely on RPa. Experiments conducted in Wistar rats (±300 g) were approved by Ethics Committee CEUA-UFG (092/18). Firstly, (n = 3), monosynaptic retrograde tracer Retrobeads was injected into RPa; PAG slices were analyzed. Other two groups (n = 6 each) were anesthetized with urethane (1.4 g/kg) and chloralose (120 mg/kg) and underwent craniotomy, tracheostomy, catheterization of femoral artery and vein and of cardiac left ventricle. In one group, we injected the GABA_A receptor antagonist, bicuculline methiodide (BMI – 40 pmol/100 nL) into lateral/dorsolateral PAG. Another group was injected (100 nL) with the GABA_A receptor agonist muscimol (20 mM) into RPa, 20 min before BMI into PAG. The results were: i) retrogradely labelled neurons were found in PAG; ii) PAG activation by BMI caused positive chronotropism and inotropism, which were accompanied by afterload increases; iii) RPa inhibition with Muscimol reduced heart rate, arterial and ventricular pressures; iv) the subsequent PAG activation still increased arterial pressure, cardiac chronotropy and inotropy, but these responses were significantly attenuated. In conclusion, PAG activation increases cardiac chronotropy and inotropy, and these responses seem to rely on a direct pathway reaching ventromedial medullary RPa neurons.
Nitric Oxide Acts in the Rat Dorsomedial Hypothalamus to Increase High Fat Food Intake and Glutamate Transmission
2020, Neuroscience
The dorsomedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (DMH) plays an important role in the regulation of energy intake and expenditure. Numerous appetite-regulatory signals present in the DMH, including nitric oxide (NO) and endogenous cannabinoids (eCBs), act to regulate food intake, but whether these signals are involved in regulating high fat food intake remains unknown. We therefore asked whether NO and eCBs, administered alone or in combination, would influence the consumption of high fat food in rats. We implanted bilateral guide cannulas in the DMH of young, male Sprague-Dawley rats for microinjection of vehicle, NO (via the precursor l-arginine), the eCB 2-arachidonylglycerol (2-AG), or a combination of the two signals. Following the intrahypothalamic injections, both high fat food intake and body weight were measured for two hours at which point brains were removed and sectioned to confirm cannula placement in the DMH. Here we show that l-arginine significantly increases high fat food intake when administered into the DMH. This effect is abolished in the presence of 2-AG, which alone has no effect on high fat food intake or body weight. The l-arginine-induced increase in high fat food intake is dependent on NO synthesis, as it is prevented with the NO synthase inhibitor, l-NAME. We also demonstrate that l-arginine increases glutamate transmission onto DMH neurons, an effect that also requires NO synthesis and is abolished with 2-AG. Together, these data indicate that NO acts in the DMH to regulate the consumption of high fat food, possibly by enhancing glutamate signaling at DMH synapses.
Cardiovascular reactivity to emotional stress: The hidden challenge for pets in the urbanized environment
2019, Physiology and Behavior
Emotional stress is currently considered an important risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Experimental evidence clearly shows robust autonomic cardiovascular effects in animals exposed to stress stimuli. Considering the remarkable variability of stressors, the urban environment can pose a severe challenge to cardiovascular control. Interestingly, pet ownership is indicated as an efficient non-pharmacological therapy to attenuate stress effects that can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. However, the risk of cardiovascular diseases in pets themselves living in urban environment has not received attention it deserves. Here, we review the central mechanisms involved in the autonomic cardiovascular response to emotional stress. Next, we discuss experimental evidence showing the cardiovascular effects produced by emotional stressors in animals, aiming to establish a parallel with common urban stressors. Association of additional risk factors such as sedentarism, obesity and ambient temperature are also considered. Our aim is to identify and raise awareness of the risk of cardiovascular disease in pets exposed to quotidian emotional stressors present in the urban environment.
Association of high-fat diet with neuroinflammation, anxiety-like defensive behavioral responses, and altered thermoregulatory responses in male rats
2019, Brain, Behavior, and Immunity
Overweight and obesity are a worldwide pandemic affecting billions of people. These conditions have been associated with a chronic low-grade inflammatory state that is recognized as a risk factor for a range of somatic diseases as well as neurodevelopmental disorders, anxiety disorders, trauma- and stressor-related disorders, and affective disorders. We previously reported that the ingestion of a high-fat diet (HFD; 45% fat kcal/g) for nine weeks was capable of inducing obesity in rats in association with increased reactivity to stress and increased anxiety-related defensive behavior. In this study, we conducted a nine-week diet protocol to induce obesity in rats, followed by investigation of anxiety-related defensive behavioral responses using the elevated T-maze (ETM), numbers of FOS-immunoreactive cells after exposure of rats to the avoidance or escape task of the ETM, and neuroinflammatory cytokine expression in hypothalamic and amygdaloid nuclei. In addition, we investigated stress-induced cutaneous thermoregulatory responses during exposure to an open-field (OF). Here we demonstrated that nine weeks of HFD intake induced obesity, in association with increased abdominal fat pad weight, increased anxiety-related defensive behavioral responses, and increased proinflammatory cytokines in hypothalamic and amygdaloid nuclei. In addition, HFD exposure altered avoidance- or escape task-induced FOS-immunoreactivity within brain structures involved in control of neuroendocrine, autonomic, and behavioral responses to aversive stimuli, including the basolateral amygdala (BLA) and dorsomedial (DMH), paraventricular (PVN) and ventromedial (VMH) hypothalamic nuclei. Furthermore, rats exposed to HFD, relative to control diet-fed rats, responded with increased tail skin temperature at baseline and throughout exposure to an open-field apparatus. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that HFD induces neuroinflammation, alters excitability of brain nuclei controlling neuroendocrine, autonomic, and behavioral responses to stressful stimuli, and enhances stress reactivity and anxiety-like defensive behavioral responses.

View all citing articles on Scopus

View full text

Cognitive, Behavioral, and Systems NeuroscienceReviewThe dorsomedial hypothalamus and the central pathways involved in the cardiovascular response to emotional stress

Abstract

Highlights

Section snippets

Stress: impact on the cardiovascular system

DMH: anatomical organization

DMH: a Key region in the cardiovascular response to stress

Rostral ventrolateral medulla and the vasomotor component of the response to activation of the DMH

Raphe pallidus and the cardiac component of the response to activation of the DMH

Periaqueductal gray: a source of excitatory input to neurons in the DMH?

Nucleus tractus solitarius: stress, DMH and baroreflex modulation

Brain functional asymmetry and DMH

Conclusion and perspectives

Acknowledgments

Brain Res

Behav Brain Res

Trends Cogn Sci

Neuroscience

Brain Res

Behav Brain Res

Neuroimage

Brain Res

Neuroscience

Brain Res

Brain Res Bull

Pharmacol Biochem Behav

J Neurosci Methods

Brain Res

Neurosci Biobehav Rev

Auton Neurosci

Brain Res

Brain Res

Neuroimage

J Chem Neuroanat

Neuroscience

Curr Biol

Pharmacol Res

Brain Res

Brain Res

Neuroscience

Brain Res

Brain Res

Neurosci Biobehav Rev

Am J Hypertens

Neuropsychologia

Brain Res

Brain Res Brain Res Rev

Medial prefrontal cortex determines how stressor controllability affects behavior and dorsal raphe nucleus

Nat Neurosci

Bulbospinal projections to the intermediolateral cell column: a neuroanatomical study

J Auton Nerv Syst

Organization of efferent projections from the parabrachial area to the hypothalamus: a Phaseolus vulgaris-leucoagglutinin study in the rat

J Comp Neurol

Lower brainstem pathways regulating sympathetically mediated changes in cutaneous blood flow

Cell Mol Neurobiol

Receptors in lateral hypothalamic area involved in insular cortex sympathetic responses

Am J Physiol

The efferent projections of the periaqueductal gray in the rat: a Phaseolus vulgaris-leucoagglutinin study. IAscending projections

J Comp Neurol

Cardiac inotropic, chronotropic, and dromotropic actions of subretrofacial neurons of cat RVLM

Am J Physiol

Subcortical sites mediating sympathetic responses from insular cortex in rats

Am J Physiol

Neural mechanisms of autonomic, affective, and cognitive integration

J Comp Neurol

Medullary and supramedullary mechanisms regulating sympathetic vasomotor tone

Acta Physiol Scand

What drives the tonic activity of presympathetic neurons in the rostral ventrolateral medulla?

Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol

Cardiovascular and thermal responses evoked from the periaqueductal grey require neuronal activity in the hypothalamus

J Physiol

Microinjection of muscimol into the periaqueductal gray suppresses cardiovascular and neuroendocrine response to air jet stress in conscious rats

Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol

Hypothalamic sites mediating cardiovascular effects of microinjected bicuculline and EAAs in rats

Am J Physiol

Cardioaccelerator and cardioaugmentor points in hypothalamus of the dog

Am J Physiol

Descending pathways mediating cardiovascular response from dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus

Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol

Urban future

Cognitive, Behavioral, and Systems Neuroscience
Review
The dorsomedial hypothalamus and the central pathways involved in the cardiovascular response to emotional stress