Fetal testosterone and sex differences☆
Section snippets
Testosterone and the sexual differentiation of the brain
Endocrine (hormonal) systems are involved in every aspect of pregnancy, including implantation, formation of the placenta, maternal adaptation, embryonic and fetal development, parturition/birth, and fetal adaptation to life outside the womb. Hormones have a range of functions involving reproduction, growth and development, maintenance of the internal environment and the production, use and storage of energy. Experiments in animals show that gonadal hormones are essential to the sexual
Human sex differences
The psychological study of sex differences has traditionally focused on spatial, mathematical, and verbal ability [2]. However, there is increasing interest in potential sex differences in social relationships. Several studies have shown a female advantage in reading nonverbal signals. A meta-analytic study by Hall [14] showed that females are on average better than males at interpreting body language, vocal tone, and facial expression. In a more recent study [15], women were better at
Measuring fetal testosterone at amniocentesis
Both male and female fetuses produce some testosterone. In males the main source is the testes. Females are exposed to small amounts of testosterone from the fetal adrenal glands and from the maternal adrenals, ovaries and fat [10]. Testosterone can be measured in amniotic fluid collected during midtrimester amniocentesis. Testosterone is thought to enter the amniotic fluid via diffusion through the fetal skin in early pregnancy, and later from fetal urination. Although the exact correlation
The Cambridge Fetal Testosterone Project
This project is interested in the role of prenatal hormones in the development of autism. Although published prevalence rates for autism have increased significantly over the past decades, it is still a relatively rare condition. Autism spectrum conditions may occur as often as 1 in every 100 people [31]. Only a small proportion of pregnant women will be asked to undergo amniocentesis. To add to the difficulties, autism is seldom diagnosed before age 3, so there is a considerable lag between
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Nancy Lurie Marks Family Foundation for support during the period of this work. RK was also supported by a British Government Overseas Research Studentship (ORS) and the Cambridge Overseas Trust. SBC was also supported by the Medical Research Council (MRC) UK. We are grateful to Gerald Hackett, Kevin Taylor, Peter Raggatt, Svetlana Lutchmaya, Bonnie Auyeung, and Emma Chapman for their role in the Cambridge Fetal Testosterone Project.
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Protective effect of sex steroid hormones on morphological and cellular outcomes after neonatal hypoxia-ischemia: A meta-analysis of preclinical studies
2023, Neuroscience and Biobehavioral ReviewsSex differences matter: Males and females are equal but not the same
2023, Physiology and BehaviorCitation Excerpt :Organizational effects possibly produce permanent changes in the wiring and sensitivity of the brain areas [15–17]. This theory was later proved by more recent research [18–22] demonstrating for instance, how males’ and females’ brains worked differently during solving the same language tasks [23]. It can be speculated then that our brain might work differently in order to compensate for a different hormonal influence, caused by gonadal steroids.
Sex specificity in neonatal diseases
2023, Principles of Gender-Specific Medicine: Sex and Gender-Specific Biology in the Postgenomic EraPrenatal testosterone exposure is associated with delay of gratification and attention problems/overactive behavior in 3-year-old boys
2019, PsychoneuroendocrinologyCitation Excerpt :Other studies using gas or liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry to analyze steroid concentrations in amniotic fluid have shown comparable testosterone levels (Fahlbusch et al., 2015; Wudy et al., 1999). Taking into consideration that the primary source of prenatal testosterone in male fetuses are their testes it seems plausible that female fetuses at most have very low testosterone levels produced by their adrenal glands and the mothers’ adrenal glands, ovaries and fat (Gardner and Shoback, 2011; Knickmeyer and Baron-Cohen, 2006). The relationship between self-control and amniotic testosterone in boys is likely to be established by organizational effects of prenatal testosterone on the neuronal circuitry of self-control which consists of three key areas – the prefrontal cortex, the amygdala and the ventral striatum (Casey, 2015; Luerssen et al., 2015).
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The longitudinal studies of fetal testosterone and child development reviewed in this paper were carried out at the Autism Research Centre, University of Cambridge. This work was supported by the Nancy Lurie Marks Family Foundation. RCK was also supported by a British Government Overseas Research Studentship (ORS) and the Cambridge Overseas Trust. Portions of this work appeared in Knickmeyer and Baron-Cohen [42].